Bird Offerings in the Old Tibetan Myths of the Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum)

by Daniel Berounský

INTRODUCTION

The present paper focuses on myths dealing with birds which are contained in rare texts from the Nyen Collection (Gnyan’bum). They provide new information about the ritual role of birds on the Tibetan Plateau in general, but at the same time they add new data to our general knowledge about the complex

and still very poorly researched local non-Buddhist traditions in the same geographical area, as well as their historical development. Not least, these myths bear witness to the practice of animal offerings. In a quite unique manner they illustrate some ideas connected with birds and they partially reveal

the context of animal offerings in a poetic form of myth. An animal offering is a rather sensitive topic within Tibetan societies. The performance of blood offerings continues even up to the present time, despite the centuries-long struggle against it on the part of Buddhist and Bon clerics, who decry it as a

practice that is incompatible with the essential requirements of their religions. The voices raised against blood offerings and the killing of animals are recorded in a vast number of textual documents.1 In contrast with the multiple angry voices calling for an end to animal offerings, there has been an almost absolute silence in relation to background information about the ideas behind the beliefs that support them. It is hoped that one of the outcomes of

this paper will be the presentation of the wider context surrounding such ideas, free of the distraction of ideology and religious fervor. The present paper will provide some extracts from the collection of myths on the original humans and Nyen beings (gnyan) as they appear in the apparently ancient Old Tibetan texts of the Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum). The Nyen are beings who inhabit the natural environment, e.g., trees, rocks, lakes, and the soil. In Tibetan communities, it is still believed that by crushing rocks, cutting down trees and disturbing water one annoys the Nyen residing in them, who might then punish such offensive acts. The lords of the Nyen are described in the Nyen

1 As a vivid example, one can point to the genre of texts about the “evil of blood offerings” (dmar mchod nyes dmigs). For an example of such texts, see Rig ’dzin Gar gyi dbang phyung, Thar med dmyal ba’i gting rdo srog gcod mchod sbying nyes dmigs.

Collection as being huge creatures, comprising different parts of animals, which stretch between the sky and the earth. This highly interesting collection has been briefly introduced by Samten Gyaltsen Karmay, who also translated a part of one of the myths it contains.2 A number of the myths in this

collection mentions the offering of various kinds of animal, the most frequently and vividly described being those involving birds. The case of the Nyen Collection may well illustrate the more general difficulties faced when dealing with Bon traditions and the complexity of the term Bon. The majority of its traditions are ascribed to the distinct culture of Zhangzhung by native monastic Bon scholars. The Nyen Collection is reported to have been rediscovered by

three hunters, before 1017, in the vicinity of Mt. Kailas,3 i.e., the time when the famous “treasure revealer” (gter ston), Shenchen Luga (Gshen chen Klu dga’), rediscovered texts that were influential in the traditions of Bon monastic life.4 In theory, this fact might point to a connection with the earlier existence of the Zhangzhung kingdom in western Tibet. There is another much shorter version of the Nyen Collection, which was rediscovered by Ponse Khyungoetsal

(Dpon gsas khyung rgod rtsal, b. 1117) in the 12th century,5 again in western Tibet. This might confirm the assumed connection. In both of these instances it is claimed that the Nyen Collection was part of a larger corpus of texts called the Fourfold Collections (’Bum bzhi), comprising, in addition to the Nyen Collection, the Lu Collection (Klu ’bum), the Sadag Collection (Sa bdag ’bum), and the Toe Collection (Gtod ’bum).

2 Samten G. Karmay, “Tibetan Indigenous Myths and Rituals with Reference to the Ancient Bön Text: The Nyenbum (Gnyan ’bum).” 3 Ibid.; Samten G. Karmay, The Treasury of Good Sayings: A History of Bon, 124. The most extensive Nyen Collection available is contained in volume 78 of Bon Kanjur. It contains 165

folios, arranged into 26 chapters (le’u). The full title is Rnam par dag pa’i ’bum bzhi las rin po che gnyan gyi ’bum bzhugs so. We are not entirely sure if this version is related to the one mentioned in the chronicles of Bon as being rediscovered by the three hunters. For the rediscovery of texts by

Shenchen Luga, see Dan Martin, Unearthing Bon Treasures: Life and Contested Legacy of a Tibetan Scripture Revealer with a General Bibliography of Bon, 60;

Samten G. Karmay, The Treasury of Good Sayings: A History of Bon, 126 ff. 5 This version appears in the corpus of Bon texts named the New Collection of Bonpo Katen Texts (see Samten G. Karmay and Yasuhiko Nagano, eds., A Catalogue of the New Collection of Bonpo Katen Texts), and constitutes a relatively small part of volume 253 (comprising altogether some 250 folios) containing

a cycle of texts entitled Nye lam sde bzhi (Fourfold Direct Path), or Nye lam rgyal po sde bzhi (The Fourfold Kings of the Direct Path). The title of number four again refers to the four kinds of beings: Lu (klu), Nyen (gnyan), Toe (gto) and Sadag (sa bdag). Yet, in this case, most of the texts are influenced by tantric procedures. The one exception is the text entitled

Compendium on Nyen on 17 folios (Gnyan ’bum, Katen 253–25: 603–35). Its full title is legs sw.

Bird Offerings in the Old Tibetan Myths of the Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum) 529

But there is yet one more reference to the rediscovery of the Nyen Collection. This time it is connected with eastern Tibet and the “treasure revealer” (gter ston) is an enigmatic master, mostly referred to as Kyangphag (Skyang ’phags), who probably lived in the 11th/12th centuries.6 It is not reported as

being part of the fourfold corpora of texts mentioned above in relation to this case.7 The first two references to the rediscovery of these texts point to an earlier time. Therefore, hypothetically, we are provided with an unproblematic picture of the spread of the Zhangzhung tradition to other areas of the Tibetan Plateau. This fits very well with narratives surrounding the monastic traditions of Bon, which identify Zhangzhung as the original source of the

teachings of Bon. However, when searching for internal evidence from the texts themselves, the picture turns out to be radically different. First of all, there is frequent mention of Machen Pomra in the myths, the famous territorial deity of eastern Tibet. Secondly, the main characters of the myths are often named as the “Son of Ma” (Rma bu), the “Son of Dong” (Ldong bu – Ldong being the name of a clan) or the “Son of Nam” (Nam bu). This might be connected with

the frequent bilingual mention in these texts of various names appearing in the myths, which appear in the language of Nampa-Dong (nam pa ldong gi skad du na…, i.e., in the language of the Nam [region] of Dong clan) and only then followed by the Tibetan (spu rgyal bod kyi skad du na…). The language of Zhangzhung is not of any importance and I have argued elsewhere that the core of the texts is associated with the Nam locality of the Dong clan and that

the tradition that speaks about Ma beings (Rma) should be seen as originating in eastern Tibet.8 Even the connection with the three other collections, i.e., the Lu Collection, the Sadag Collection and the Toe Collection, is suspicious. While these three Collections speak about Shenrab Miwo in his

Teacher/Buddha (ston pa) form, he appears just as one priest among many others in the Nyen Collection. The rest of the three collections thus appear to stem from a different time and

6 There is a manuscript version of the Nyen Collection hailing from eastern Tibet, which was made available to me thanks to the generosity of Ngawang Gyatso of Lanzhou University. He photographed it in the Thewo region (The bo) of eastern Tibet. The manuscript is written on 43 folios and has no colophon.

Interestingly, some of its content can be seen as a parallel version of the Bon Kanjur, but often with different wording and with differences in the length of the respective narratives. The full title is ’Phen yul rgyas pa gnyan gyi ’bum bshugs s+ho. The question of its association with Kyangphag’s rediscovery remains open. For references to Kyangphag, see Daniel

Berounský, “Bon religion in 11th–12th century Amdo: A case of Kyangphag Mula Drungmu sKyang ’phags mu la drung mu).” 7 Samten G. Karmay, The Treasury of Good Sayings: A History of Bon, 172. 8 For more details, see the forthcoming article: Daniel Berounský, “The Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum) and Shenrab Miwo of Nam.”

environment and it is quite probable that these four collections were put together at a certain stage of development, following their existence as independent traditions. Furthermore, the Nyen Collection represents a tradition which was, until rather recently, used in certain textual versions by lay priests in eastern Tibet (Thewo) within the rather complex leu ritual

practice.9 This tradition was at the same time an object of persecution even from the side of monastic Bon, despite the paradoxical fact that the related version of the Nyen Collection forms the 78th volume of the “canonical” Bon Kanjur. The Nyen Collection is an exceptional corpus of texts on the cusp of the monastic tradition of Bon. Its presence in Tibet was recorded as early as the turn of

the 10th and 11th centuries and a living ritual practice using this text continued almost up to the present time. As has already been stated, the myths in

the Nyen Collection contain a number of references to animal offerings, including those of yaks, sheep, goats, musk deer and deer. It is rather curious that there is mention of the fumigation offering of foxes (wa bsang) and badgers (grum pa), which will be the subject of a further article. But the most

striking feature is the frequent mention in the texts of bird offerings. Thus, the main objective of this paper is to make the Tibetan sources that describe birds in a rather unusual manner available to the reader in the form of translated extracts from some of the comprehensible parts of the text. The

significance of birds in different religions is apparent across all human societies and Tibetans are no exception in this sense. Birds have been important

in the cultures of the areas surrounding Tibet, be it in Persia, the broader area of Inner Asia, China or India. Yet, so far, only a few Tibetan texts

explicitly describing the ritual role of birds are known to us. One of the interesting Tibetan scriptures dealing with birds in general is the second volume of the 14th century Gzi brjid, where a lengthy section describing some kind of conference of birds appears. Despite its obvious interesting

features, it is frequently permeated by Indo-Buddhist terminology, a fact which reduces its value as a non-Buddhist source of information.10 In any case, it mentions some classes of bird and they are characterized in such a way that seems to mirror some autochthonous beliefs.

9 For more details and references, see below. 10 To my knowledge, it has never been the subject of a detailed study. For some references to it, see Charles Ramble, “Real and imaginary Tibetan chimeras and their special powers” and Toni Huber, “The [[Iconography of gShen Priests in the Ethnographic Context of the Extended Eastern Himalayas, and Reflections on the Development of Bon Religion.” Of the several available editions of the Gzi brjid, the edition published in modern book form in Lhasa serves as a reference here. Although there are several concerns concerning the correct reading, it is, nevertheless, a

handy edition about general references to the text (see Mdo dri med gzi brjid, vol. 2, 80–120).

Another interesting Tibetan ritual text attesting to the ritual role of birds is entitled Purification of gods of the four families of little men (Mi’u rigs bzhi lha sel).11 In this anonymous ritual text the origin of five birds is described: the bat (considered to be a bird), the crane, the cuckoo, the

parrot and the skylark. These five birds serve the clans of Zhangzhung, Minyag, Azha and Sumpa. During the ritual they act as messengers, inviting a five-fold group of protective divinities associated with individuals (known, nowadays, mostly as ’go ba’i lha lnga, but such a term is not attested in this

text). There are a number of allusions to birds in the Tibetan texts, among them the well-known myth concerning the Emperor Drigum Tsenpo (Dri gum btsan po) from the Dunhuang Tibetan Chronicle (PT 1287). After the killing of Emperor Drigum Tsenpo, his body is cut into pieces and swallowed by a female water spirit (klu). In response to

the efforts to retrieve his body, the deity requires a ransom of a human with avian features – his fingers should be webbed and his eyes should close from the bottom up.12 In addition to the existing scholarly discussion of this myth, the names of mythical Tibetan emperors

containing the expression for bird (bya) are discussed as well.13 Many more references attesting to the importance of birds outside the Buddhist influenced traditions can also be mentioned. Some of them appear in connection with non-Buddhist funeral rituals. The wing of a bird was used during the ritual and the recently published illuminated text (the so called Mokotoff manuscript) depicts and lists some of the birds which probably served as guides to the

deceased.14 To all these references, many more could be presented here, we should certainly add a recent work by Cathy Cantwell and Robert Mayer. They explain that winged tantric deities are rather specific to Tibet and that they probably reflect the earlier importance of birds in Tibet.15 Some of the birds mentioned in the myths presented below have already been dealt with in the secondary literature. This is true for both the cuckoo and the bat. The

cuckoo figures frequently in Tibetan folk songs, but its religious significance in relation to Dzogchen teaching has been highlighted by Samten Gyaltsen

11 See S. Gyaltsen Karmay and Yasuhiko Nagano, eds., The Call of the Blue Cuckoo. An Anthology of Nine Bonpo Texts of Myths and Rituals, 1–33. For an

English rendering of part of the text, see John V. Bellezza, Spirit-mediums, Sacred Mountains and Related Bon Textual Traditions of Upper Tibet, 211. 12 There are several translations of these parts available. See, for example, J. Bacot, J. W. Thomas, and Ch. Toussaint, Documents de Touen-houang relatifs a

l’historie du Tibet, 123–28; Nathan Hill, “The Old Tibetan Chronicle: Chapter 1.” 13 Cf. Erik Haarh, The Yar-luṅ dynasty, 209–12. 14 John V. Bellezza, Death and Beyond in Ancient Tibet. 15 Cathy Cantwell and Robert Mayer, “The Winged and the Fanged.”

Karmay.16 Such an incorporation of cuckoos into the higher monastic teachings has probably come about because of the existing religious significance of this particular bird. There are two recent and interesting articles that deal, in part, with the bat. Not only is the perception of the bat (considered to

be a bird in Tibetan sources) reviewed but some possible clues as to the distribution of related mythical and ritual traditions are explored. The first of the articles represents the partial outcome of field research conducted in recent years by Toni Huber in Arunachal Pradesh and eastern Bhutan.17 It contains a section introducing the role of the “clever bat” (sgam po pha wang) in a number of myths common to that region, namely that it acts as a

trickster or messenger of the priests. Toni Huber even provides a useful map of the locales where such myths have been attested. The role of the bat as described by Huber is very similar to that which appears in a number of myths from the Nyen Collection; the extracts presented below will provide only one of many examples where the bat appears in a similar role. Another interesting article dealing partly with the bat was recently published by Charles

Ramble.18 It firstly lists references to the existing secondary literature highlighting the ritual importance of the bat among the Naxi in today’s Sichuan province of China. Charles Ramble then translates a myth describing the origins of the bat, which comes from the Thewo locality in eastern Tibet, which is inhabited by Tibetan-speaking people. This text constitutes part of a collection of rituals called leu (le’u). Interestingly, some leu rituals are also

mentioned by Toni Huber with reference to the areas of his research, albeit with a somewhat different meaning.19 Among these leu rituals from Thewo (and adjacent area to Phenchu /’Phan chu/), a shorter version of the Nyen Collection has, until recently, been used as an important part of the tradition.20 16 Samten G. Karmay, The Great Perfection (rDzogs chen): A Philosophical and Meditative Teaching of Tibetan Buddhism, 43; Idem, The Little Luminous Boy, 5.

17 Toni Huber, “The Iconography of gShen Priests in the Ethnographic Context of the Extended Eastern Himalayas,” 266–68. 18 Charles Ramble, “Real and imaginary Tibetan chimeras and their special powers,” 15–20. 19 While in the rituals studied by Toni Huber the leu represents a part of a larger ritual (related to the usual meaning of the Tibetan expression le’u – “chapter”), in studies presented by Ngawang Gyatso this designation denotes the whole ritual

tradition (cf. Ngawang Gyatso’s article in this volume). Citing references from Tibetan texts, Ngawang Gyatso argues that such traditions were known to Tibetans centuries ago. Of course, the question concerning their relationship arises immediately. 20 These highly interesting leu rituals have been the subject of a paper presented at the workshop on the manuscript culture of Bon in Hamburg (March 2016) by Ngawang Gyatso (Ngawang Gyatso, “A comparison and

preliminary study of le’u manuscripts from Phan-chu, The-bo and lDomkhrom”). It mostly contains valuable references to the recent ritual tradition within which the Nyen Collection plays an important role, being recited during the whole day as part of the ritual. For a general introduction to the leu tradition, see Ngagwang Gyatso’s article in the present volume.

Although these important observations have been mentioned only briefly here, they raise a number of questions with regard to the extracts translated below, which are the subject of on-going research. Summing up the main information we have on their background, the translations of extracts presented below come

from a version of the Nyen Collection contained in the single surviving copy of Bon Kanjur (hence NB). The content, as well as most of the names of the main characters mentioned in the myths, point to eastern Tibet as the place of origin of the core items. However, references found in historical chronicles speak about the “treasure revelation” of the Nyen Collection in western Tibet as early as the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries. In my hypothesis, this

could be explained by the migration of people from eastern Tibet. The myths of the Nyen Collection were also used outside monastic Bon until recent times in the Thewo region of eastern Tibet, forming an integral part of the specific leu ritual tradition. The case of the bat may suggest the possibility of connections between the tradition represented by the Nyen Collection and the Naxi people (and perhaps also with the Pumi/ Primi and others), and also with

the ritual traditions of the regions studied by Toni Huber. To label them simply as Tibetan would be an oversimplification and deprive them of their true context, which is only beginning to be explored. There is still a significant lack of knowledge about the geographical distribution and the possible encounters with locally based traditions outside the dominant influence of Buddhism and monastic Bon, which were quite possibly silently and gradually

taking place over a number of centuries. To gain an understanding of the context of the myths in the Nyen Collection, it must also be stressed that these narrations are not isolated from each other; neither is this the case in relation to the broader poetic tradition that extends beyond the text of the Nyen Collection. The whole collection is replete with the numerous repetition of some phrases and descriptions of rituals, which appear to have been

abbreviated, extended, or retold in different ways. Such a context helps us to better understand the following extracts dealing with birds. Instead of being independent texts focusing on birds, they are simply examples of the manifold register of a certain elastic mythopoetic tradition, apparently stemming from oral traditions. They combine traditional phrases that group together some of the birds with existing formulaic narratives, combining them

within a single framework of narrative plots, which are subject to extension, variation or abbreviation. What may appear to us to be a very dense text was clearly once part of a poetic tradition that used the device of allusion to create a much fuller and complex mythopoetic world of its own. But, as readers of the Nyen Collection in the present time we can simply attempt to understand them within the limits of our knowledge of the fragments that remain in the texts.

THE ORIGINS OF THE 360 SPECIES OF BIRD

One of the texts from the Nyen Collection contains a myth in which the origins of 360 kinds of bird are related (NB: 202). It constitutes the 19th chapter

(le’u) of the Nyen Collection entitled Meeting of mothers and sons of Nyen (Gnyan ma bu sprad pa’i le’u). Despite the frequent misspellings, dense style and certain inconsistences, it still represents a source that provides us with interesting information on the perception of birds. The wording at the very

beginning of the myth is uncertain, but it is clear that the process of creation results in the existence of the Blue Lake (Mtsho sngon po). One can only speculate as to whether its name relates to the famous lake in Amdo bearing the same name (Ch. Qinghai), but this might also be just a mythical lake. The

birds are created from a set of original eggs, which emerge from the lake as a result of the “wishes” or “prayers” (smon) of the ancestral figures of Yekhen Trulgyi Gyalpo (Ye mkhan ’phrul gyi rgyal po) and his wife, who has a similar name. Their names might be rendered as “Miraculous king/queen with

knowledge of the primordial.” Later in the text, this name appears slightly differently as Monlam Trulgyi Gyalpo (Smon lam ’phrul gyi rgyal po, “Miraculous king of a prayer”), but these names are synonymous. In the following extract, only the opening parts of the myth will be translated. Due to its length and

the incomprehensible parts of some of the myth, the rest will only be paraphrased. This myth is simply a narration on the origins of birds, and is followed by some sort of list briefly outlining rituals in which birds play a role. The original stories narrating the crises and conflicts between the original

people and Nyen no longer exist, we are simply left with descriptions of the rituals. Some of these stories appear in several variant forms in other myths from the Nyen Collection. This myth is thus a condensed framework, introducing birds in general, but referring to a much richer mythopoetic context that permeates the whole Nyen Collection.

Translation and paraphrasing

Now, salutation to meeting of the mother and son of Nyen! Salutation to connecting the split-up boulders of Lu and Nyen! Salutation to removing the poison of Lu and Nyen! Salutation to the thirteen [ways] of clearing away! Salutation to sending the birds of Sadag, Lu and Nyen! Salutation to sending the ransom offering for the sickness of humans!

21 For the original Tibetan texts see Appendix.

Salutation to the determination of a fine for killing a mother! Salutation to offering 360 species of bird as valuable gifts!

The birds opening the padlocks of the gates: White Bird Thulum and duck – the bird of Lu, Goose – the bird of Nyen, The 360 species of bird, And nine ‘fine relatives’ – where these were searched for?

In the past, at the beginning, the place was first established (?),22 And the basis of earth of creation was taken, The designated foundation was spread,

A bit of existence (?) was created,23 A bit of moisture came into existence there, A fog was formed from the vapours, And white cloud was formed from the fog, The white cloud is the support of creation, The Nyen’s creation became attached to it with desire,24 As for that creation, It was wished to be a place providing birth inside the Blue Lake.

Yekhyen Trulgyi Gyalpo, And Yekhyen Koetrulgyi Gyalmo, the two, Pulled out the might from the great mighty sky, Pulled out the strength from the earth of a great power, And wished to attach and place much of creation, Inside the Blue Lake of creation.

As for the creation there, The nine eggs of creation originated, From inside the silver egg, The Tsangcha Gyalpo Gangpo bird originated, From inside the golden egg…

22 The reading is uncertain: gnas lnga (=snga?) dang po bshad (=bzhag?). 23 Tib. yang is amended into yod, but the correct reading remains uncertain. 24 This sentence is apparently corrupt: srid pa gnyan gyi chags shin tor te srid pa ni… it does not make much sense, but a few lines further on there appears a phonetically similar sentence, srid pa mang zhig chags shing ’dod/ der srid pa ni/. Taking into account the many formal repetitions, the sentence can thus be reconstructed as srid pa gnyan gyi chags shing ’dod/ der srid pa ni.

The text continues with the creation of the nine fabulous birds from the nine eggs, whose names mostly do not correspond to the known Tibetan names of birds, but seem to be a poetic rendering of birds otherwise known under different names. One can only recognize “Blue-necked peacock” (rma bya mgrin sngon)

and one can also speculate that the first bird mentioned here, Tsangcha Gyalpo Gangpo (tshangs bya rgyal po gang po), is a crane (khrung khrung), since the crane is often connected with the formulaic “Tsangcha Gyalpo” (tshangs bya rgyal po khrung khrung) in the Nyen Collection. These are referred to as the

“Nine fine relative birds” (bzang bya spun dgu).25 Another phase of the creation of birds continues. Following the prayer of Monlam Trulgyi Gyalpo (Smon lam ’phrul gyi rgyal po) other eggs appear from the Blue Lake. The text mentions nine of them, in the sense of “totality” (dgu means both “nine” and

“all”), because only four eggs are then mentioned. In this case they represent an attempt of provide a general classification of birds. (1) From the iron egg appear three families of “meat-eating birds with hooked beaks” (sha zan mchu bkug). (2) From the bell-metal egg appear “seed pecking birds” (mchu rta

sgom [=sgum/rgum] mthun [=’thu/thun]). (3) From the turquoise egg26 appear a golden bird, a silver bird and “a small skylark with a changing [[[Wikipedia:voice|voice]]]” (cog chung ’gyur mo).27 These are small of body, but have far-reaching wings (lit. “long”) and they are messengers of all Lu and Nyen with whom they counsel.

(4) From the golden egg appear three kinds of “mud-eating bird with flat beaks” (mchu leb ’dam zan), which are a goose – the bird of Nyen, a duck – the bird of Lu and a merganser bird (chu bya zil mo [= ir mo]?).28 Categories similar to “meat-eating birds with hooked beaks,” “seed pecking birds”

and “mud-eating birds with flat beaks” can be found in the above-mentioned anonymous text, The purification of gods of the four families of little men (Mi’u rigs bzhi lha sel), 29 and some allusions to such classifications also appear in the alreadymentioned Gzi brjid. In the latter example, the bird categories are listed as: “flesh

25 These consist of Tsangs bya rgyal po gang po (a silver egg), ’Phrul gyi rgyal po bya rje ’od dkar (a golden egg), Bya’i rgyal po che ru (an agate egg), Mun bya dkar po (a turquoise egg), Rma bya mgrin sngon (a leather egg), Lha’i gdan bu rkang chen (a copper egg), Bya dkar thu lum (a conch-shell egg),

Bye’u chud ma dkar (a crystal egg). 26 The text speaks about golden and turquoise eggs, but the golden egg comes next. 27 The skylark also appears in one of the myths translated below, from which the meaning of its name becomes clear. 28 This is the probable reading, cf. www.tibetbirds.com (accessed 29 July 2016). 29 Here (S. Gyaltsen Karmay and Yasuhiko Nagano, eds., The Call of the Blue Cuckoo. An Anthology of Nine Bonpo Texts of Myths and Rituals, 1) the

category of birds is mentioned as “Grain pecking ones with globular beaks” (sgum thu thams cad mchu hril). The expression mchu rta is not clear here; one can only speculate that chu stands for mchu (“beak”) and rta (meaning “horse”) is hard to explain. Sgom mthun should be emended to sgum ’thu (grain pecking). It should be noted that in

eating” birds (sha zan), “mud-eating” ones (’dam zan), birds with “delightful feathers” (spu sdug) and birds with “melodious voices” (skad snyan) in some

parts of the text. Later, in the same text, a group of “seed pecking” (rgum thun) birds appears as well. 30 The myth continues with a description of the third phase of creation. Monlam Trulgyi Gyalpo projects his wish onto the Blue Lake again and a golden egg appears. This egg falls onto the rocks, bursts

open and the Lord of the Birds, the great Khyung (a mythical eagle) emerges from it. It has claws made of meteorite rock, and goes on to subdue the peak of The Excellent Mountain (ri rab) and the heads of Lu and Nyen. This happens again with the appearance of a silver egg, from which a Lord of the Birds – a

white crane (tshangs bya rgyal po khrung khrung dkar po) emerges. It exercises power over the triple worlds. With the third bird, the text becomes very confused, but it is clear that it describes the act of mating between certain beings, which results in the emergence of a bird with the name Phabong Mangke (pha bong mang ske). This bird gives orders to the triple worlds. The name of this bird is very confusing. It is possible that the reference is actually to

a bat (pha wang, written quite frequently as pha bong in the Nyen Collection).31 The fourth and final step in the creation speaks about the creation of 360 species of bird, all hailing from the same mother. These birds are simply listed in accordance with the vertically presented realms of the universe, which is a recurrent motif in the Nyen Collection. The cuckoo is presented as the lord over these birds. The first bird mentioned is a turquoise parrot with

delightful feathers. This is followed by a certain bird named as Jangmo (ljang mo) – the bird of demons, Du (bdud), the “Blue-faced one” (kha sngon) – the bird of Mu (dmu), the “White winged one” (’dab dkar) – the bird of the Moon, a sandpiper (thing ring [=thing ril]) – the bird of the Sun, Cigpa (cig pa) –

the bird of the stars, a pheasant (ser mo =zer mo?) – the bird of the rainbow, Lhenkar (lhan dkar) – the bird of glaciers, Kyinkar (skyin dkar) – the bird of slate rocks. The lord of these birds is

Gzi brjid a certain kind of bird is consistently called Sgum thun, belonging to the category “birds with nice voices” (skad snyan). See Mdo med gzi brjid, II:86. 30 This time it is written down as rgum thun, i.e., “those collecting grain,” see Mdo dri med gzi brjid, II:83–84, 115. 31 The second part of the

name, mang ske, sounds quite strange. This also appears in the name of a mythical figure, Kuchi Mangke (Sku byi mang ske), known from a myth on a Gekhoe deity, which has been dealt by Karmay (Samten G. Karmay,“The Local Deities and the Juniper Tree: A Ritual for Purification (bsang),” 396–402); see also

Namkhai Norbu, Drung, De’u and Bön: Narrations, Symbolic Languages and the Bön Tradition in Ancient Tibet, 117–20. In its first myth the Nyen Collection mentions nine beings, Gyake (Rgya ske), and the ninth of them is simply Kuchi Mangke. It is not clear at all as to why it figures in the name of this bird.

the cuckoo, it determines the time and marks the boundary between summer and winter (sbyal [=dbyar] dgun). The myth continues with a brief mention of the rituals performed by Nyenbon [Thangthang Drolba] and Klubon [Yarnya Khyimbu], to whom the birds are presented. The first ritual consists of the

reconciliation with the Nyen, who receive three birds; a goose – a bird of the Nyen, a duck – a bird of Lu and Chakar Thulum (bya dkar thu lum). These birds are adorned with bells and nine keys, tied to their necks. The padlocks of the nine gates are opened by the keys, and the lords of the Nyen are invited to receive the offerings, thus reconciling the earlier enmity.32 This is followed by the ritual referred to as the “straightening of the

crookedness of the Nyen” (gnyan gyi yo ba bsrangs), during which Mirab Sipä Lonpo (Mi rabs srid pa’i blon po) prepares a cushion and tent, using a bat and a skylark to invite the Nyen, and confesses his misdeeds. Purification rituals appear next, performed by Ya-ngal Gyimgong (Ya ngal gyim gong). First comes the “poison removal” ritual (dug phyung), during which is “poison removed from the necks of the Nyen and Lu”; a white yak belonging to the Nyen is used for

this purpose. Then, a number of birds are listed and it is stated that the 360 species of bird were presented as a “fumigation offering” (bsang).33 The text continues with sections describing how the Nyenbon and Lubon dispatched a “turquoise parrot” and a “goose – the bird of the Nyen” to acquire various medicinal substances from the Nyen and Lu. They successfully return with these items, which are subsequently offered in sacrifice, together with the yak, a

snake, a deer and an ox from the Nyen. The conclusion is that “the mother and son of the Nyen and Lu” meet, the split boulders of the Nyen and Lu are reconnected, the crookedness is straightened, the original people (mi rabs) receive the “soft essence of butter” and the “souls” (bla) of people and cattle are retrieved.

32 A detailed rendering of the opening of the padlocks of the Nyen in other myths from the collection describes the original conflict between the people and the Nyen. The Nyen hide the “souls” (bla) of people behind padlocked gates. See, for example, the translation in Samten G. Karmay, “Tibetan Indigenous

Myths and Rituals with Reference to the Ancient Bön Text: The Nyenbum (Gnyan ’bum).” 33 The birds used for bsang fumigation include a number of birds classified previously, as well as “nine fine relative birds,” but not exclusively. Even some of their names are written down differently tshang bya’i rgyal po gang mo, ’phrul ’jang ’od dkar, bzang bya sbal po che, rma bya ’od po che, gser gyi bye’u, dngul gyi bye’u, mu bya sngon mo thod dkar, bse bya mgrin

ring, lho yi gdong bu’i skad, bzang bya spu dgu, g.yu’i ne’u tso, shug byi’u (=bye’u) smra mkhan, NB: 210. Bird Offerings in the Old Tibetan Myths of the Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum) 539

A BAT AND A CUCKOO AS RESCUERS OF THE “MALE DEITY” (PHO LHA) AND THE “WARRIOR DEITY” (DGRA BLA)

The bat (viewed as a bird in Tibet) and its role in older Tibetan traditions has already been mentioned above, with reference being made to the recent texts discussing the bat by Toni Huber and Charles Ramble.34 However, another already mentioned Tibetan ritual text, entitled The purification of gods of the four families of little men (Mi’u rigs bzhi lha sel) appears to be very similar in its description of the ritual role of the bat and cuckoo in the

extract translated below. In this ritual text the origins of five birds are described: the bat, the crane, the cuckoo, the parrot, and the skylark. These five are messengers which act on the invitation of the five-fold group of protective individual divinities. The extract from the Nyen Collection presented

below is rather brief, but it mentions both the bat and the cuckoo as birds that rescue only two such deities: the “male deity” (pho lha) and the “warrior deity” (sgra bla). In this case it is not clear how these two birds were actually treated during the ritual. The myth mentions them solely as rescuers who

search for and eventually find the two mentioned protective deities. Their importance as mediators and messengers between deities and humans is, however, more than clear.

Translation

Again, where did the meeting of the mother and son of the Nyen originate? The father Gegen,36 Killed the demon Dudlan Chiring, As for his corpse, he hid it below the nine layers of earth, The male-deity and warrior deity were disturbed, And the people and the Nyen; the two; were divided. Bon Sose (?),37 Spread

the conch-shell basis of Se (gsas), And planted a Se-stone of fierce Wal (Dbal), He hoisted a lamp of creation, 34 See notes 16 and 17. 35 The extract comes from parts of the Nyen Collection describing variants of stories dealing with the “meeting of mother and son,”

which results in the reestablishment of harmony between the original people and the Nyen. For the Tibetan text see Appendix. 36 Tib. Rgas rgan. However, the name is mentioned later in the same text as ’Greng rgan rgod. 37 The text reads bo so se de yis, but it is apparent that it mentions a ritual specialist. It is thus amended into bon so se de yis.

And smeared blood (mtshal)38 on the fur of the goat and sheep of the Nyen, He tied gold and turquoise to the goat, The wise bat,39 Was dispatched to search for the male-deity and warrior deity,

And also the cuckoo with melodious voice was dispatched to search for the male-deity and the warrior deity, The wise bat found the male-deity and arrived, The cuckoo with a melodious voice found the warrior deity and arrived, [For the] benefactor father, Dreng Gengö,40 The mother and son of the Nyen met

together, And the Nyen were satisfied. And even now the wise bat, And the cuckoo with the melodious voice, Make the people and the Nyen meet together, Birds; the mothers and sons; Act as messengers between the people and the Nyen! Make always to meet together the mother and son for this benefactor!

FOUR BIRDS AS MESSENGERS BETWEEN THE NYEN AND THE PEOPLE

The extracts introduced here and in the two following subchapters come from a longer myth forming the 22nd chapter (le’u, NB: 230–47). Its title is The Nyens’ Essence of Butter and Essence of Stone (Gnyan gyi mar snying dang rdo snying). While the preceding myth resembles a brief summary of the plot, in

this case the myth represents rather a detailed narration about the original generations of people (Smra mi rabs mched gsum) and their conflict with the Nyen. The “soft essence of butter,” a symbol for favourable circumstances, is taken away from the people and given to their enemies. The “Essence of stone”

represents the hardships that befall them instead. An attempt is made to remedy the situation by recourse to ritual specialists, including Shenrab Miwo. However, they fail to bring harmony to the people and the situation only partly improves. Then, the wise bat appears and succeeds in appeasing the Lords of the Nyen.41

38 It could also mean “vermilion.” 39 Tib. pha bong ljags sgom=pha wang ljags sgam, later mentioned as sgam chen. 40 Tib. ’Greng rgan rgod. It is apparently the same figure as Gegen (Rgas rgan) at the beginning of the my

th. 41 For a translation of the whole myth, see the forthcoming article: Daniel Berounský, “The Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum) and Shenrab Miwo of Nam.”

But what interests us here are the various roles assigned to birds during the ritual. In the following translation it is primarily that of messengers between the original people and the Nyen. It includes a myth on the origins of four birds (later in the text, the fourth of them is identified as a red-

rumped swallow /khug rta khra bo/, but the identity of the rest of them is not clear), which reveals their value as beings which stem from the origins of the universe. They are considered to be the birds of the Nyen and their ritual role is to proceed to the four cardinal directions of the world and invite

the Nyen beings to the arranged offerings, including animals representing the vertical layers of the inhabited world. The three priests, including Shenrab Miwo, adorn these birds with colourful textiles and tie bells and cymbals to their necks in order to make them attractive to the Nyen.

Translation

Where were the four bird-brothers of the Nyen sought out?

The blue mist of the sky, And the risen blue vapours of the lake, Coupled in their sensation, not meeting [[[Wikipedia:physically|physically]]], In the cloud-womb of the space in-between, And four mind-eggs appeared there. The inside of the eggs, Fell down as a River of Joy of Nyen (?).

The white egg burst open and from its inside, A white bird with a red crest appeared, It follows the orders of its lord – cong nge cong! Its delightful feathers – yer de yer! Its good wings – ldem se ldem! It brings the messages from the white wild Nyen. The black egg burst open and from its inside, A black bird with a red crest [appeared], From the teakwood red crest, [236] Spreads its agate beak, He acts as an egg-messenger of the black wild Nyen, His delightful feathers – yer de yer!

From inside the red egg, A red bird with a red crest [appeared],

Its delightful feathers – yer de yer! Its good wings – lhab se lhab! The sound of its wings – ’u ru ru! It’s following orders – cong nge cong!

Again, the blue egg bursts open and from its inside, A black bird with a blue crest [appeared], It acts as an egg-messenger of the blue wild Nyen. Its good wings – lhab se lhab! These four birds went to invite the Nyen. Nyenbon Thangthang Drolba, Shenrab Miwo, And Lubon Yarnya Kyimbu, the three, Adorned those four birds with bright textiles, Attached bells and cymbals to their necks, And sent those four birds to invite the four wild Nyen, From the four directions of the sun.

[Arriving at the Lords of the Nyen] the birds pronounced:

“We desire to purify the pollution of dispute between the people and the Nyen, the two, We ask the wild Nyen to proceed [to the people].” The Nyen said: “We would not go right now, The Lords of the Nyen have not been contented, [237] Thus meanwhile, Persuade the four flocks [of the cardinal directions]!” [The birds] flapped their wings and left.

Those four birds were singing in the four directions of the sun – si li li! Their mirrors and ear rings – lhag se lhag! Their coloured ribbons – phu ru ru! Those four birds said: “The four of us were dispatched, By Nyenbon Thangthang Drolba, Shenrab Miwo And Lubon Yarnya Kyimbu, To you, at the Excellent Mountain (ri rab),

In order to purify the [pollution of] the dispute between the people and the Nyen, We beg you to proceed quickly here!” So they addressed them.

By that White Bird, White birds were invited while showing them the path, The Eastern Nyen, Proceeded to the precious offerings, The white sheep of the Nyen, Together with the white birds of the Nyen, Were presented as precious offerings, The [pollution] of the dispute between the people and the Nyen was purified, The white wild Nyen, Displayed to Ma (smra) and the people, The soft ‘essence of butter,’ Depriving them of the hard “essence of stone,” [And bestowing it on] the hateful enemies, Starting from that time on [238], The Nyen acted as Lords of the people… (Then, similar sections cover each of the four cardinal directions and the corresponding birds.)

THE CRANE, THE SKYLARK AND THE BAT

The following extract comes from the same mythical narration. While the four birds were able to invite the Nyen from the four cardinal directions, they were still unable to appease the Lords of the Nyen. The rituals performed by Shenrab Miwo and Nyenbon Thangthang Drolba failed, but suddenly a wise bat

makes its appearance on the scene. It is the wise bat, which in such cases facilitates the required ritual to reach its goal. The role of the bat is not that of messenger this time, but it has more importance as a kind of ritual specialist in cases of crisis. The parts describing the skylark and the crane

are vivid examples of the value ascribed to birds. They are characterized as beings that “follow their own minds”: the skylark singing in the early spring in fact “counsels with the Nyen,” his body is small, but his wings are far-reaching; the crane “sees everything without looking,” etc.

Translation

Shenrab Miwo, And Nyenbon Thangthang Drolba said there: “Salutation to the wish of the Lords of the Nyen; the father and the mother! Mirab Chesum offered nine [kinds of bird] flying to the sky,

Nine [[[Wikipedia:species|species]] of animal] running in the space in between, Ten [[[Wikipedia:species|species]] of animal] sneaking to the earth, But [the Lords of the Nyen] were not satisfied.”

The Wise Bat said there: “Shenrab Miwo, And Nyenbon Thagthang Drolba; the two; Know all major and minor rituals (gto). [Useful for them are those] of small body, But with long wings,42 How noble [are those], Who follow their own mind!”

Where [did] those [[[beings]]] originate first? From the emptiness of the intermediate space [between the sky and earth], The first sprout of the mind was born as a son, From its surface a Nangba Öden was brought up, And miraculous All-Knowing Girl, the two. They coupled in their minds, not meeting with their

bodies, And the two mind-eggs appeared there. That white mind-egg, Fell on the earth from the sky, Down to the Mule Drumshing (Mu le drum shing) tree.43 That reddish stone-egg, Fell to the nest of gentian plants (?).

[243] From inside the white mind-egg, [Appeared] a white bird wearing white mind-felt, With the blue lower hair of a yak, Its eyes [reach] the elevated sky, And also the [[[eyes]] of] the goddess of the elevated sky [look] down on it, And thus the name “Crane – the bird of the sky” was given to it. From inside of reddish stone-egg, Appeared a marvellous and wondrous bird, Wearing a variegated mind-collar on its body,

42 It evidently intends to convey the message that they are able to travel far. The skylark does not have exceptionally long wings. 43 A mythical tree. Bird Offerings in the Old Tibetan Myths of the Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum) 545

The size of its body is small, but its wings are long, Without being taught, its knowledge comes from the primordial, Without looking, its sight reaches very far, With all [those endowed with] primordial knowledge it counsels. During the third winter month, With the great Nyen and [Mirab] Chesum, It counselled – si li li! Soaring it soared high in the sky, The name given to him was “small skylark with changeable [[[Wikipedia:voice|voice]]]”.

BIRDS PROCEEDING THROUGH THE LAYERS OF THE WORLD

This extract is a continuation of the same myth referred to above. Birds have the ability to traverse various vertical layers of the universe. The crane and the skylark are described as being the first to be caught, adorned with bright textiles, bells, mirrors, etc., and then dispatched as offerings to the

Lords of Nyen. Their ability to travel through the various layers of the world and “open” them up by using the keys attached to their necks is of importance in this case. The description of the layers of the world speaks, firstly, about the series of realms belonging to Lu (klu), the intermediate

realm of the Nyen, the realm of Toe (gtod), the realm of Sun and Moon.44 The realm of Cha beings (phya) comes next. Demonic beings, Du (bdud), can also be found on the same level and the border between Cha and Du is occupied by what is translated as the Setters of Borders (gcod pa mtshams). The Lords of Nyen reside above this layer. Such a description of the world is, at the same time, both clear and unique.

Translation

Mabu did what he was told about the birds, He bound the birds by the silk rope of the Nyen, And offered them to the presence Of Nyenbon Thangthang Drolba and Shenrab Miwo, The bird was given the name “skylark with a variety of pleasant [[[Wikipedia:voices|voices]]],” To its body nine kinds of coloured silk were attached, To its neck a bell with melodious sound was tied, To each of the right and left wings a mirror was attached,

44 In some of the myths a region of clouds, rainbow and stars are mentioned as being below the Sun region.

[The path] was not shown to the bird, It [itself] entered the bird-path leading to the Lord [of the Nyen] and left. The melodious sound of the bell – si li li! The mirrors and ear rings – lhag se lhag! The nine coloured silks – pu ru ru! [245] The many Lu (klu) and Nyen of earth watched them, Raising their faces, The birds flapped their wings and left.

The Nyen of the intermediate sphere, Were looking at them with their eyes, Raising their faces, Thinking in their hearts. The Sun and Moon amidst the thick clouds – sha ra ra! By the mind-key the mass of mist was dispersed, By the mist-key, The gate of Toe (gtod) was opened, By the golden key, The hot country of the Sun was opened, By the conch-shell key, The adjacent cool [country of] the Moon was opened.

Proceeding upwards from there, There are great wise Cha (Phya) Upon the heavenly plains of Cha country. At the near borderland, Are the great Setters of Borders.

As for the great [[[beings]]] from the land of violent (btsan po) Du (bdud), The Du are the great ones.

In front of these triple great [[[beings]]], At the [land] of the great wise Cha, A fine golden house was put up, To the violent (btsan po) Du, Seven ransom offerings (glud mo) were offered, To the Setters of Borders, Seven parts of juniper were offered. When proceeding up from there, [246] [Birds] arrived at the presence of the Father and Mother of Nyen,

The melodious sound of bells – si li li! The mirrors and ear rings – lhag se lhag! The silks of nine colours – lhag se lhag! In an instant they arrived at the Lords of the Nyen; the Father and Mother. The Lords of the Nyen; the Father and Mother said: “From where do the far-resounding bells, The mirrors, the ear rings, And the silks of nine colours come?” … (Being attracted by their attire, the Lords of the Nyen accept them, eventually, as a gift.)

THE OFFERING OF A DOMESTIC FOWL (KHYIM BYA)

This extract and the paraphrases come from a different myth, entitled in a similar way to the previous one, The exchange of “essence of butter” and “essence of stone” (Mar snying dang rdo snying brje ba, le’u 20: 212–20). The sacrifice of a rooster or domestic fowl (khyim bya)45 is described at the end of the text. The myth consists of two parts. The first part describes the release of various beings, including the Nyen, Lu, Men (sman) and Ze

gzad), who eventually proceed to their respective places. The myth then continues with a ritual performed in order to deprive the Nyen of the heavenly demons, Dre (’dre)46 and Don (gdon) of the creation. The text mentions the “yellow hat” of pollution (sgrib)47 that is used during the ritual. A number of animals are

sacrificed. A black musk deer and the offering of its skull, trunk (gsob), etc., is explicitly mentioned. Then 360 categories of bird are offered as a “retribution of the life force” (srog gi lan chags) and “a debt for life” (tshe’i bu lon). This part closes with a common phrase that can be found at the

conclusion of similar myths, which states that “as it was beneficial in the past, it is also beneficial for the present donors.” The second part narrates a myth which also explains what can be described as the domestication of birds. Domestic fowl was given to the original people by the Nyen in response to their offering of one hundred yaks. Of particular interest

45 The term is rather general in Tibetan and could just mean poultry. 46 This context makes it clear that ’dre demons are seen as a sort of parasite that contaminates pure beings. Indeed, the meaning of the expression ’dre as a verb is to “mix up.” 47 It is also worth noting that the expression “yellow hats” (written exactly as zha/zhwa ser) was later to become a synonym for the most widespread and dominant Buddhist school of Gelugpa tradition (dge lugs pa).

is that the gift of domestic fowl points to the existence of a sedentary people and this myth thus reveals that it comes from such an environment. The bird is endowed with the ability to communicate with the Nyen. The concluding part speaks about particular bodily parts, including the inner organs and bones,

as having the ability to purify various categories of Nyen. This appears in the Nyen Collection and also in different myths, where it is linked to other animals. There is no doubt that the bird was offered as a sacrifice to them. Some parts, including the opening of the myth, will only be paraphrased here.

Translation and paraphrasing

The text describes the creation of the white, red and black domestic fowl (khyim bya) with red combs. The birds receive the parts of their bodies from various godly and demonic beings and are the property of Yabla Daldrug (Ya bla bdal drug)48 and Mabla Chung ma (Ma bla chung ma). They arrive on the Earth from the sky, receiving instructions from the White, Red and Black Nyen. The text then states, rather unclearly, that a number of yaks were slaughtered in

the land of the Nyen. However, the sacrifice failed because of the absence of fire. This part of the text is indeed unclear and one can only tentatively suggest the following translation, which includes a number of corrections:

Meanwhile, in the land of the Nyen, There was no fire and blaze, A hundred thousand yaks of the Nyen were butchered, But the fumigation-flesh (?) was consumed by wind, The liquid blood was hardly noticed (?), [The offerings] were not present in the land of the Nyen.

In the human land of Miyul Kyithing (Mi yul skyi mthing),49

One hundred yaks were butchered by Mi Nambu Donchen (Mi nam bu don ched/chen),50

48 The text mentions Ya bla bdud, but it seems that bdud was mistakenly copied from an original extraction instead of bdal bdrug. 49 Although this locality mostly denotes the mythical land of humans, in the narrower sense it could be identified as a locality in Kongpo (Rkong po), in eastern Tibet. See Charles

Ramble, “The creation of the Bon mountain in Kongpo”; Henk Blezer, “It all happened in Myi Yul Skyi Mthing: a crucial nexus of narratives pointing at the proto-heartland of Bon?” 50 In the name of the original man, an archaic chad (known from Dunhuang documents) standing for chen appears interchangeably with the latter form. This again attests to the archaic background of the text.

Their fumigation-flesh was boiled and offered, Being boiled, the liquid blood was offered.

A black bird arrived there as a response to the people,51 It arrived as a ‘well-being’ (g.yang) of Saga Dogdrug (Sa ga dog drug),52 Smoke it wears as its hat, dew it wears as its shoes, A collected lump of manure it keeps (?), The black bird received by the people was not abandoned, There is no more attractive bird than this one, In the Saga Dogdrug land of Mi Nambu Donchen.

Though, the godly place of mating, Is on the top of the Dark Mountain of the Nyen, Also the place of burying the dead, Is on the top of the Dark Mountain of the Nyen, Even [a place] of measuring the amount of collected wood, Is on the top of the Dark Mountain of the Nyen, And even the place of [[[measuring]]] the water taken and scooped up, Is on the top of the Dark Mountain of the Nyen.53

A destruction of Lu fell on the Nambu Don[[[chen]]], A decline of the Nyen has befallen on him, He was close to death.

Nyenbon Thangthang Drolba Nyer (Gnyan bon thang thang grol ba gnyer), Performed the rite and diagnosis, And said: Give me the domestic fowl! The domestic fowl was presented into his hands, And decorated with all colourful fine textiles, Gold was applied to its face, Turquoise was tied to its neck. The Nyen Bon said: “Noble bird Domo Gyal (Ldo mo rgyal)!54

51 Tib. mi len=mi lan. 52 This name denotes earth in older Tibetan texts, juxtaposing it with sky, but the precise meaning is not clear. 53 This part suggests that the woods and water used by the people belong to Nyen, and that the births and deaths of people are similarly linked to Nyen. 54 Lit. “Domo, the lord.” It clearly appears here as a polite name for the domestic fowl.

Carry a message!” Female priest (mo gshen), Did not try to find the way to Tsen (btsan), Did not like to run in haste,55 The Black Bird was given in response to the people, It has instructions [from the Nyen], The speech of the bird, Is the one of the Nyen, The speech of the Nyen, Is the one of the

bird. The domestic fowl – nge bo nge! Is carrying a message – ldem se ldem! The bird and the Nyen, the two, Communicate with the voice of mother and son. By the voice of the bird the Nyen of thunder were purified and healed, By its breath the Nyen of wind and the Nyen of clouds were purified, By its eyes the

Nyen of the Sun and the Moon were purified, By its tongue the Nyen of lightning were purified, By the ten parts of its body and the three parts of its head, The thirteen Nyen realms of creation were purified and healed, By its backbone the forty-three divine Nyen were purified and healed, By its clean

heart the hearts of the remaining Nyen were purified, By its internal organs the Nyen lady – Bra ma [[[tree]]]56 was purified and healed, By its large intestine the Snake-Nyen were purified and healed, By its small intestine the Nyen of Roads were purified and healed, By its stomach the eight thousand residences of the Nyen were purified,

By its entrails the Nyen of mountain passes and valleys were purified and healed, By its bones the Nyen of stones were purified and healed, By its blood the Nyen of rivers were purified and healed, By its head-feathers the Nyen of medicinal groves were purified and healed,

By its white feathers the hundreds and tens of thousands of the White Nyen – the men and horses – were purified and healed,

By its black feathers the hundreds of thousands of men of the Black Nyen and their tens of thousands of horses were purified and healed,

55 These few lines refer to some unknown story dealing with female priests and a ritual connected with Tsen (btsan) beings. 56 Mostly identified as Caragna brerifolia Kom. See Dga’ ba’i rdo rje, ’Khrungs dpe dri med shel gyi me long, 143. Bird Offerings in the Old Tibetan Myths of the Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum) 551

By its red feathers the hundreds of thousands of men of the Red Nyen and their tens of thousands of horses were purified and healed,

By its blue feathers the hundreds of thousands of men of the Blue Nyen and their tens of thousands of horses were purified and healed, The knots in the hearts of Lu and the Nyen were released, The film on their eyes was cleaned off, The web covering them was wiped off, The disease of Nambu Donchen was removed, And in such a way it was healed..

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Terminating our brief journey through the mythical bird narrations as they appear in the Nyen Collection, there are two points, taken from different viewpoints, which should be included in our concluding thoughts. The first point to be stressed concerns the attitude towards animals in general and birds

in particular. The orthodox Buddhist worldview certainly does not see any specific value in animals, which are perceived as being inhabitants of one of the realms of transmigration. This stems from a holistic perspective covering “all sentient beings,” and where one of the “bad destinations” (Tib. ngan song,

San. durgati), along with the realm of the inhabitants of hell and hungry spirits (Tib. yi dwags, San. preta), is the miserable realm of animals, i.e., one of a total of five or six realms of rebirth (Tib. ’gro ba, San. gati). Such an Indo-Buddhist viewpoint also made its way to the monastic Bon. The extract

from the commentary on “preliminary practices” (Sngon ’gro’i khrid yig bka’ lung rgya mtsho) by the highly respected Bon master Shardza Trashi Gyaltsen (Shar rdza bkra shis rgyal mtshan, 1858–1933) can be cited as an example which repeats the typical phrases of such a genre of texts:

Undomesticated wild ungulates are killed by a number of carnivorous animals, hunters and others. The great variety of ways of killing them makes them wretched and deprived of body and mind. Being constantly tormented by fear and dread, thirst and hunger, etc., they [[[experience]]] suffering. Carnivorous animals, including birds, are devoted to the blood and flesh and as a result they suffer greatly since killing has been the sole activity of their entire

life. Meanwhile, during the many days when they do not get any blood and flesh to eat, an immeasurable thirst and hunger arises in them. Some of them even suffer to such an extent that they attempt to make their own body; bones, blood and flesh, skin, horns, etc.; to cause their own death. Nāgas and others are attacked by Garudas. They are stupid and ignorant. Their cruelty, badness, etc., make them desperate.

And similarly, domesticated animals are carrying loads and ploughing [fields]; they are milked, their wool is cut, their noses are pierced, their flesh is cut and their blood is made to flow out. They suffer unbearably from slavery...

This orthodox view is certainly far from the image of a pristine natural harmony in the animal world. The manifold miseries experienced by animals are frequently mentioned as emanating from their dullness, stupidity and cruelty, stemming from one of the main roots of transmigration – ignorance (gti mug). What a contrast there is with the attitudes expressed in the verses from the myths introduced above! The birds introduced to us there are anything but dull

and stupid. Let us remind ourselves of the verses describing: the crane, as a being endowed with knowledge of the primordial; the simple skylark, singing during the spring and, in fact, “counselling with Nyen beings”; the cuckoo, dividing up the periods of time and; the “wise bat,” bringing harmony even to

situations where the most able priests fail. The high esteem and great appreciation in which animals in general are held apparently stems from the perception that they have their origins in the beginning of the world. But there is another side to the same coin. Being of such enormous value, they are

offered as precious and powerful gifts during rituals. Such a perception of animals in general is supported by a verse that appears in the Nyen Collection; a verse which expresses a strong disagreement with the viewpoint that is based on Indo-Buddhist general presumptions about impermanence of all existence,

which is subjected to the chain of “causes and effects” (rgyu ’bras). The mentioned verse follows a list of animals, including birds, which are to be presented as valuable gifts to the Nyen. It states that these animals are valuable offerings but that they “do not arise from any cause” (yod pa rgyu las

’byung med pa).57 In this little detail we become aware of the crucial belief that animals are very precious and have been so from the beginning of existence. This being true, it is ridiculous to undermine their value by any speculation relating to cause and effect. In fact, this small instance of

polemics pinpoints the core of the fundamental disagreement with the Indo-Buddhist viewpoint concerning animals.58 57 See NB, 234. 58 Questions can be raised, for example, about the well-known Tibetan practice of freeing animals, referred to as “life releasing” (the

thar). While usually being explained by reference to the Indo-Buddhist notion of “compassion” within the tradition, it nevertheless seems to be linked with the high level of esteem in which animals are held by the non-Buddhist traditions of Tibet that operate below its Buddhist surface. For similar observations, see David Holler, “The Ritual of Freeing Life.”

Shifting the focus from animals in general to the particular myths of the Nyen Collection, we need to consider the obvious limitations of providing only extracts from the texts in the present paper. The whole of the Nyen Collection represents a unique corpus which has survived as a particular text. But the text is almost certainly derived from oral traditions. This is attested by the frequently reoccurring formulae, by the inclusion of proverbs, etc. Despite

the difficulties connected with it, such as a lack of knowledge about the origins of the extant versions, the inconsistency of some of the myths and the frequent spelling mistakes, this corpus of texts deserves to be looked at as a whole. In relation to the majority of existing non-Buddhist myths, one has

to largely resort to mere fragments. Such fragments can tell us very little about the background and context of these narratives, full as they are of mere allusions. This large corpus of the Nyen Collection thus provides us with an opportunity to learn about the inner functioning and inner logic of old

Tibetan myths. The striking feature, which is also apparent when dealing with birds, is its elasticity and poetic infiniteness. It is hoped that in the future better insights into these texts will bring about a better understanding of this highly interesting mythopoetic tradition.

TRANSLITERATED TEXT OF TIBETAN EXCERPTS

The origins of the 360 species of bird NB, 202: da gnyan po ma bu sprad ’tshal lo/ klu gnyan gyi pha bong bcag pa sbyar ’tshal lo/ klu dug gnyan (203) dug phyung ba ’tshal lo/ gtsang sel bcu gsum gyi btab ’tshal lo/ sa bdag klu gnyan bya btang ’tshal/ mi snyung pa’i glud btang ’tshal lo/ ma bsad pa’i stong

’jal ’tshal lo/ bya rigs sum brgya drug cu yon du ’bul ’tshal lo/ tha ram sgo sbye la bya dkar thu lum dang klu bya ngur pa dang/ gnyan bya ngang pa dang/ bya rigs sum brgya drug cu dang/ bzang spun dgu gang du bcal (=btsal) na/ gnas lnga (snga?) dang po bshad/ srid kyi sa gzhi bzung/ skos kyi rming bting/ yang (=yod) tsam yud tsam srid/ de la bag tsam rlan tsam srid/ rlangs las smug du chags/ smug la sprin du chags/ sprin dkar po srid pa’i rten yin/ srid pa

gnyan gyi chags shin tor te (=shing ’dod/ de) srid pa ni/ mtsho sngon por skye ba’i gnas de nas smon/ lam ye mkhyen ’phrul gyi rgyal po dang/ gto ye mkhyen skos ’phrul gyi rgyal mo gnyis kyi/ gnam mthu chen las mthu phyung/ sa stobs chen las stobs phyung ste/ srid pa’i mtsho sngon po’i nang na/ srid pa (204) mang zhig chags shing gnas par ’dod/ der srid pa ni/ srid pa’i sgo nga dgu ru bsrid/ dngul sgong dkar po’i nang nas/ tshangs bya rgyal po gang po srid/...

A bat and a cuckoo as rescuers of the “male deity” (pho lha) and the “warrior deity” (dgra bla) NB, 321: yang gnyan ma bu sprad gar srid na/ yab rgas rgan gyi/ bdud lan spyi ring bsad/ ro ni rim pa dgu’i ’og tu sbas/ der pho lha sgra bla tshubs pas/ mi dang gnyan gnyis dbye’o/ der bo se se (=bon se) de yis/

dung gi gsas gzhi btings/ dbal drag gsas rdo btsugs/ srid pa’i sgron ma bkyag/ gnyan ra gnyan lug ma bu’i spu la mtshal gyis byug/ ra la gser g.yu btags/ pha bong (=pha wang) ljags sgom (=sgam) de/ pha lha sgra bla tshol du gtong/ gsung snyan khu byug yang pho lha sgra bla tshol tu gtong/ sgam chen pha bang nges (=des) pho (=pho lha) snyed nas ’ong/ gsung snyan khu byug gi(s) sgra bla rnyed nas ’ong/ de’i yon bdag gis/ yab ’greng rgan rgod kyis/ gnyan ma bu

sprad pas/ gnyan gyi grangs (=’grang) grol/ de ring yang sgam chen pha bong (=pha wang) dang/ gsung snyan khu byug gis/ mi dang (322) gnyan du sprad/ bya ma bu ’dis mi gnyan gnyis kyi phrin pa gyis shig/ yon bdag ’di’i ma bu rtag tu sprod/.

Four birds as messengers between the Nyen and the people NB, 235: gnyan bya spu (=spun) bzhi gang nas btsal ba dang/ gnam gyi dal kha sngon po dang/ mtsho rlangs sngon po langs pa gnyis/ bar snang sprin rum du/ ma mjal yid kyis ’tsho pa la/ yid kyi sgo nga bzhi ru byung/ sgo nga’i kha nad (=nang) nas gnyan

gyi skyid chu babs/ sgo nga dkar po rdol nang na/ bya dkar ze dmar can du byung/ rje dang bka’ mdzad cong nge cong/ spu sdug yer de yer/ ’dab bzang ldemse (ldem se) ldem/ gnyan rgod dkar po’i than phrin mdzad/ sgo nga nag po la rdol nang nas/ bya nag po la ze ba dmar po can/ seng ldeng ze ba la/ mchong gi (236) mchu yang bdar/ gnyan rgod nag pos sgo nga’i phrin pa mdzad/ spu sdug yer de yer/ sgo nga dmar po’i nang shed na/ bya dmar ze ba dmar po can/ spu

sdug yer re yer/ ’dab bzang lhabse (lhab se) lhab/ gzhog sgra ’u ru ru/ bka’ mdzad cong nge cong/ yang sgo nga sngon po’i rdol nang na/ bya nag po ze ba sngon po can du byung/ gnyan rgod sngon pos sgo nga’i phrin pa mdzad/ ’dab bzang lhabse (lhab se) lhab/ bya de bzhi gnyan gyi spyan ’dren du gshegs/ gnyan bon thang thang grol ba dang/ gshen rab mi bo dang/ klu bon dbyar snya gyim bu dang gsum gyis/ bya de bzhi yang mdo ro ngar gyi brgyan/ dril bu sel (=sil)

snyan mgul odu btags/ bya de bzhi yang nyi ma phyogs bzhi nas/ gnyan rgod bzhi’i spyan ’dren du btang/ de la yis mchid na re/ mi dang gnyan gnyis mkhon pa sbyang ’tshal/ gnyan rgod ’di ru gshegs su gsol lo ’tshal skad/ gnyan gyi zhal na re/ nga thang cig mi byon no/ rje gnyan la gso ba’i mi mchis/ de (237) bas da sring ni/ bya sgo khyung bzhi chos shig skad/ der ’dab s+ji la zhon te gshegs/ bya de bzhi yang nyi ma phyogs bzhi la gsung snyan si li li/ me long

sna long lhagse (lhag se) lhag/ mdo ro dar tshon phu ru ru/ bya de bzhi’i zhal na re/ da de bzhi ni gnyan bon thang thang grol ba dang/ gshen rab mi bo dang/ klu bon dbyar snyan gyim bu dang/ ri rab khyod kyis mngag pa lags/ mi dang gnyan gnyis/ kyang

Bird Offerings in the Old Tibetan Myths of the Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum) 555

mkhon pa sbyang ’tshal ba/ thang cig ’di ru gshegs su gsol/ zhes zhus so/ der bya dkar po yis/ gnyan bya dkar po rnams/ spyan drangs shul mtshon pa/ shar gyi gnyan po yis/ yon dang pad du gshegs/ gnyan lug dkar po dang/ gnyan bya dkar po yis/ gnyan bya dkar po rnams/ yon dang pad du ’bul/ mi dang gnyan gnyis mkhon par byed (=byang)/ der gnyan rgod dkar po yis/ mar snying ’jam po ni/ smra mi la bstan/ gor snying sra mo ni/ sdang ba’i dgra la bral ba bzhin/ de (238) phyir slan chad na/ mi mgon gnyan gyis byas/.

The crane, the skylark and the bat NB, 242: der gshen rab mi bo dang/ gnyen (=gnyan) bon thang thang grol ba’i zhal na red/ gnyan rje yab yum gyi thugs kyi ’dod pa cig phyag ’tshal gsungs pa dang/ mi rabs mched gsum gyis/ gnam la ’phur dgu dang bar la rgyug dgu dang/ sa la ’dzul bcu phul na ma mnyes so/ der sgom po (=sgam po) pha bang (=wang) gi zhal na re/ gshen rab mi bo dang gnyan bon thang thang grol ba gnyis kyang gto che chung kun mkhyen nas/ bong get

chung la gsheg (=gshegs) rkyang (=kyang) ring/ rang gi blo dang ldan pas/ cho ’brang e re che/ de dang po gang na srid/ bar snang stong pa nas/ yid kyi ljang ma bu cig skyes/ de’i kha las snang ba ’od ldan khas blangs/ rdzu ’phrul bu mo mngon shes gnyis/ sku ma ’jal yid kyi bshos nas/ yid kyi sgo nga gnyis su byung/ yid kyi sgo nga dkar po de/ gnam nas sa la lhung/ mu le drum shing babs/ rdo sgong gro bo de/ yang ma spur la tshang (243) bcas (=babs)/ yid kyi

sgo nga dkar po’i nang shed na/ bya dkar po la yid phying dkar po gyon/ g.yag gi mtha’ zhol sngon po can/ spyan mig mthon po dgu du lha mos kyang mthon po dgu du mas/ ming yang gnam bya khrung khrung du btag/ rdo sgong gro bo rdol pa’i nang shed na/ ya mtshan rmad kyi bya cig byung/ yid kyi sgong lag khra bo lus la gyon/ bong nge chung yang gshog kyang ring/ ma bslabs ye nas shes/ ma gzigs rgyang nas mthong/ ye mkhyen kun dang bka’ gros mdzad/ dgun gyi zla gsum

la/ gnyan chen mched gsum dang/ bka’ gros mdzad pa si li li/ lding ni mthon po dgung du lding/ ming ni cog chung ’gyur mo’i ming du btag/.

Birds proceeding through the layers of the world NB, 243: der mi rabs mched gsum zhal na re/ bya bshos ci ltar bshor (=shos) bgyis byas pa dang/ sgam po pha phang (=wang) zhal na re/ gser phye me long gang/ gnam phyi’i phyag du phul nas zhus shig gsungs nas/ mi rabs mched gsum gyis/ gnam (244) phyi gong

rgyal gyi phyag tu gser phye me long phul nas zhus pa/ rang rig blo dang ldan pa ji ltar bshos zhes zhus tsam na/ gnam phyi’i zhal na re/ ri kha bdo pa dang/ rtse’i drung dang/ rtsi dang sman khyer la/ pha bong steng du kha ba phyag la/ yid kyi snying (=snyi) dang thag ra bres gsungs/ mi rabs mched gsum gyis/ de ltar byas pa dang/ bye’u de rtsi dang sman la babs/ bye’u snyi la bzung/ khrung khrung thag la bzung/ der smra bu dran shes kyis/ bye’u skad pa

la/ dar thag gnyan gyis btags/ gnyan bon thang thang grol ba dang/ gshen rab mi bo zhal du phul/ ming dang mtshan yang cog ga ’tshur mo (? ’gyur mo) snyan du btags/ bye’u la stan kyang mi ’tshal/ bya lam rje la zhabs bzhugs (=zhugs) de song/ dril bu sgra snyan si li li/ me long sna long lhag se lhag/ dar

tshon sna dgu pu ru ru/ sa (245) yi klu gnyan mang po yang zhal du gzigs/ zhal yang de la bzhengs/ bya sgro s+ji (=rji) la ’dril te gshegs/ bar snang khams kyi gnyan rnams kyang/ spyan de la gzigs/ zhal de la bzhed/ thugs kyang de la dgongs/ bar snang sprin rum na nyi zla sha ra ra/ yid kyi lde mig gi thabs (=thibs) kyi bang ba bshig/ thabs (=thibs) kyi lde mig gis/ gtod kyi sgo mo phyes/ gser gyi lde migs (mig gis)/ nyi ma’i dro ljongs phyes/ dung gi lde mig

gis/ zla ba’i bsil khad phyes/ de las yar gshegs na/ phya yul gong (=gung) thang na/ sgom po (=sgam po) phya che’o/ ’tsham (=mtshams) yul de nyan (=nye) la/ gcod pa ’tshams che’o/ btsan po bdud yul na/ che ni bdud che’o/ che gsum thad dkar (=ka) na/ sgam po phya che la/ gser gyi khang bzang phub/ btsan po bdud che la/ glud mo cha bdun phul/ gcod pa ’tshams che la/ zhug (=shug) shing cha bdun phul/ de las yar gshegs na/ gnyan rje yab (246) yum gyi spyan sngar

byon/ dril bu sgra snyan si li li/ me long sna long lhag se lhag/ dar tshon sna dgu lhag se lhag/ gnyan rje yab yum yud la byon/ gnyan chen yab yum gyi zhal na re/ dril bu rgyang grags dang/ me long sna long dang/ dar tshon sna dgu rnams/ gang las byung gis gsungs/.

The offering of a domestic fowl (khyim bya) NB, 216: de tsam na gnyan yul du/ me dang zhugs ma mchis/ gnyan yag (=g.yag) bgyadng (brgya dang)/ stong bshas

kyang gsang (?bsang) sha rlung du gsol/ chab khrag (217) bsngal du mthong/ gnyan yul du ma mchis/ mi yul skyi mthing na/ mi nam bu don chad du/ g.yag brgya bshas te/ gsang sha (?bsang sha) bcos te gsol/ chab khrag bskol nas gsol/ bya nag mi len (=lan) yang der gshegs so/ sa ga dog drug g.yang du byon/ du ba zha ru gyon ba mo lham ru gyon/ lud khur ’thu byi (?) gong ’tshag go/ bya nag me (=mi) lan slar mi btang bas/ sa ga dog drug mi nam bu don ched du/ bya de

las sdug med de (=do)/ bshos kyi lha sa yang/ gnyan ri smug po’i gong/ shi ba’i dur sa yang gnyan ri smug po’i gong/ shing thun (=’thu) gtang ’jal yang/ gnyan gyi rmog (=gnyan ri dmug) po’i gong/ chu bcus chab len yang/ gnyan ri rmog (=smug) po’i gong/ der nam bu don la klu’i dar (?=bdar) babs so/ gnyan gyi zer (?=zed) lhung ngo/ shi ru nye la khad/ der gnyan bon thang thang grol ba gnyer/ gto dang phyang (=dpyad) du byas/ khyim bya dra (?) ’on gyi shig

gsungs/ der kyim (218) bya gshen gyi phyag du phul/ dar tshon sna dgus brgyan/ kha la gser bcug/ mgul du g.yu btags/ gnyan bon zhal na re/ bya btsun ldo mo rgyal/ than dang phrin khyer zhig/ mo gshen kho bo yang/ btsan du ’gren (=?’grul) ma ’tshol/ mgyogsu (mgyogs su) dkyus mi dga‘/ bya nag mi len (=lan) la/ man ngag bya la yong (=yod)/ bya ngag gnyan la yod/ gnyan ngag bya la yod/ kyim bya nge bo nge than khyer ldemse ldem/ bya dang gnyan gnyis kyang Bird Offerings in the Old Tibetan Myths of the Nyen Collection (Gnyan ’bum) 557

ma bu skad kyis phrin/ bya’i skad kyis ’brug gnyan bsad (=bsang) shing bcos/ dbugs kyi rlung gnyan dang sprin gnyan bsang/ spyan mig gi nyi gnyan dang zla gnyan bsang/ lce’i glog gnyan bsang/ lhu bcu gnyin mgo dang gsum gyis/ srid pa’i gnyan khams bcu gsum bsang zhing bcos/ rgal tshigs kyi gnyan bzhi bcu rtsa

gnyis dang lha (219) gnyan bzhi bcu rtsa gnyis bsang zhing bcos/ snying gi gtsang kun dgus kyi gnyan ’phru (=’phro) mas snying khrom bsang/ mtsher pas gnyan lcam bra ma bsang gis bcos/ gnye mas sbrul gnyan bsang gis bcos/ rgyu mas lam gnyan bsang gis bcos/ pho bas gnyan gyi khyim bu brgyad stong bsang gis bsang/ sul mang gis la lung gi gnyan rnams bsang gi bcos/ rus pas rdo gnyan bsang gis bcos/ khrag gi chu gnyan bsang gis bcos/ mgo spus rtsi shing nags

tshal gyi gnyan rnams bsang gin bcos/ spu mdog dkar pos gnyan dkar pos gnyan dkar po mi rta khri ’bum bsang gis bcos/ spu mdog nag pos gnyan nag po mi khri rta ’bum bsang gis bcos/ klu gnyan gyi thugs kyi mdud pa grol/ spyan gyi ling tog gsal/ skos (=bkab) kyi dra ba phyis/ mi nam bu don (220) chen na bsol lo/ der yang de dang ’dra bar sos/.

Concluding remarks Shar rdza bkra shis rgyal mtshan, Sngon ’gro’i khrid yig bka’ lung rgya mtsho: 154–55: (...) mis bdag tu ma byas pa’i dud ’gro ri dwags rnams ni gcan gzan dang rngon pa sogs gsod pa po grangs mang/ gsod lugs kyang mi ’dra ba du mas nyam thag par byas te bem rig phral/ rtag tu ’jigs skrag

dang bkres skom sogs kyi gdungs pas sdug bsngal ba dang/ gcan gzan dang bya rigs sha khrag la dad pa rnams ni tshe gcig gsod gcod kyi las kho nar byed pas shin tu sdug bsngal/ nyin zhag mang po’i bar du sha khrag bza’ rgyu mi rnyed pa bkres skom gyi snang ba yang dpag tu med/ kha cig rang gi rus pa dang/ sha

khrag dang/ pags pa dang/ rwa co la sogs rang gi lus nyid kyang rang nyid gsod pa’i rgyur gyur pas kyang shin tu sdug bsngal/ klu la sogs pa bya khyung gis gnod pa dang/ blun zhing gti mug pa/ gdug rtsub dang dug sogs yod pas nyam thag pa’o/ de bzhin mis bdag tu byas pa’i dud ’gro rnams kyang/ khal ’gel ba dang/ rmos rmo ba dang/ zho bzhos ba dang/ spu ’bal ba dang/ sna ’bigs pa dang/ sha gcod pa dang/ khrag phyung ba sogs bkol spyod gyi sdug bsngal la zad pa med/(...).

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