Traveler’s Biography: Xuanzang
Hasan Ahmed
Lahore University of Management Sciences (LUMS)
Xuanzang is regarded as an important Indophile of medieval China and is believed to be as famous in Asia (especially South East Asia) as Marcopolo is in the West . He was a Buddhist scholar, monk, traveler and a translator, who spent around seventeen years of his life in traveling from China on Silk Road to India through Central Asia. The purpose for this was mainly a religious one; he wanted to expand his knowledge of Buddhism by means of obtaining original sutras and by learning directly from the teachers of India, the place where Buddha lived . But there are other important aspects of his travels as well; along with the propagation of the Buddhist sutras, he popularized India as a holy land by his writings and played a significant role in promotion of diplomatic ties among China and India by persuading Tang emperors, his chief benefactors, Taizong (reigned 626–49) and Gaozong (reigned 649–683). Indeed, his magnum opus, The Records of the Western Regions Visited during the Great Tang Dynasty , served the dual-purpose of serving as a guide for the coeval Chinese clergy on one hand and served the expansionist purposes of Tang rulers on the other hand. As a result, Xuanzang’s contribution becomes momentous for two reasons; firstly, it chronicles him as a pilgrim and contributing heavily to the expansion of Buddhism in China and secondly, it provides historical information of numerous kingdoms and polities adjacent to the Tang China and portrays Xuanzang as an envoy of China .
Here it is important to take into account the situation of China in 627, the year Xuanzang commenced his journey to India. At that time, the Buddhism was flourishing in China because the Confucianism (the official faith) was actually a set of moral and ethical principles and it was possible to be a good Buddhist and Confucian at the same time as well as there was no odium theologicum in China . Therefore the Buddhist monastic establishments and doctrines were deeply entrenched in China and almost all essential texts had been translated into the Chinese. There were numerous new indigenous ideas and schools were being formed. Moreover, after India, China transformed into a hub of Buddhism from where the religion spread into the South East Asia and neighboring countries.
Xuanzang came into this world in 603 AD and at the age of thirteen years he became a novice and at the young age of twenty he ended his novitiate and was fully ordained . Soon, he became doubtful about the translation of Buddhist texts and found them “conflicting, garbled, or simply inadequate” and felt that “each abbot uncritically followed the teachings of his particular school” . He wrote that “though the Buddha was born in the West his Dharma has spread to the East. In the course of translation mistakes may have crept into the texts, and idioms may have been misapplied. When the words are wrong the meaning is lost, and when a phrase is mistaken the doctrine becomes distorted.” Eventually, he would be successful in bringing back with him 657 Buddhist texts in 520 cases. Also, he is regarded as one of the three best translators of these texts on the basis of his eminent translations.
When Xuanzang decided to leave China for India, there was an imperial ban on traveling outside the Tang empire, but owing to his dedication towards his religion he decided to leave covertly. Tansen Sen has presented several implications of this decision; he speculates that the reason why Xuanzang purposely “sought audience with important foreign rulers in Central and South Asia”, as he might have thought that this would help him in travelling across various states and kingdoms and eventually his return back to his homeland “free of bureaucratic intrusions.” While another reason could have been that these personal contacts with foreign rulers would be beneficial for the Tang Empire and he would be appreciated by the Emperor Taizong for this service. These might be the reasons why his masterpiece provides the readers with unique insights into the various political, religious and diplomatic activities practiced by these rulers.
The most significant part of Xuanzang’s journey is his account of India; it is believed to be important resource for the history of India as before him there are very few authentic historic resources that deal with the pre-modern history of India. In his book, Xuanzang starts with the analysis of the various names of India used in China and tells us that the right name should be “Indu”. Further he delves deep into describing the topography, environment, system used for measurement, the caste system, legal system, religious landscape, socio-cultural norms of the region, economy, products produced/made in India and the habits of natives. Thus, it provides us with vast survey of India, which is no doubt an important historical resource. Besides this, he has given an elaborate description of the states he had visited in India, the most important of them being the city of Kanauj which was the capital of King Harsavardhana’s empire. Harsavardhana at that time (637/638) was governing a large polity and had after a long time established peace in the region and both Hinduism as well as Buddhism thrived in his time. Here, Xuanzang was able to meet the King in person and learned that Harsavardhana had already heard of “The Prince of Qin” (Emperor Taizong), and was aware of his deeds. Xuanzang further described that the Taizong has, “reduced taxes and mitigated punishments. The country has surplus revenue and nobody attempts to violate the laws. As to his moral influence and his profound edification of the people, it is exhausting to narrate in any detail.” To which the Indian King responded: “Excellent! The people of your land must have performed good deeds in order to have such a saintly lord.”
This meeting was important because it laid the foundation for the diplomatic relations between India and China. “Harsavardhana, the Indian King was so impressed by his narratives about China that he dispatched an embassy to the Chinese capital Chang’an in 641 AD. The Chinese emperor Taizong responded positively and sent his envoy Wang Xuance to India thrice.” This contribution is fully acknowledged by the state historians of Tang empire. It is a possibility that the reason for promoting this diplomatic exchange was the result of Xuanzang’s thinking that this would help the Buddhist exchange between the two empires as most of the “Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India and the learning center at Nalanda were part of Harsavardhana’s empire.”
In the thought of Chinese clergy, there was an ancient belief that China is situated at the “borderland” of the sites which were frequented by the Buddha, which is mentioned in the works of Faxian (another Buddhist monk who traveled to India before Xuanzang) . There is an interesting excerpt where Xuanzang is in conversation with his hosts at the Nalanda monastery, which deals with this issue of “borderland”, it occurs when he had decided to return back to his motherland; ““Why do you wish to leave after having come here?” enquired one of the monks at Nalanda. “China,” he continued, “is a borderland where the common people are slighted and the Dharma despised; the Buddhas are never born in that country. As the people are narrow-minded, with deep moral impurity, saints and sages do not go there. The climate is cold and the land is full of dangerous mountains. What is there for you to be nostalgic about?” Xuanzang replied, “The King of the Dharma (i.e., the Buddha) has founded his teachings and it is proper for us to propagate them. How can we forget about those who are not yet enlightened while we have gained the benefit in our own minds?” He argued that China was a civilized land with laws, principled officials, and cultured people.”
The presence of such conversations between Xuanzang and different people makes his travelogue distinct and also helps us understand and explore various cross-cultural perspectives. His records not only provide us with significant knowledge of the India but it also helps us understand the perception of China through the Indian lens. There is another important significant contribution of this book which is not much well known, as Xuanzang visited numerous sites of Buddhism thus there is mention of all of these in his travelogue, which has proved very beneficial for the archaeology in India. According to Deepak Anand “ "Based on Hiuen Tsang's [[[Xuanzang]]] work, places like Rajgir, Vaishali, Nalanda, Sarnatha and Kapilavasthu were identified in the 19th century. British archaeologist Alexander Cunningham also played a crucial role in excavating few Buddhist monuments. Later, the Archaeological Survey of India was established in 1861 to explore and protect the findings based on Hiuen Tsang's work.” This makes us realize the importance of Xuanzang’s work and his contributions to many disciplines, thus making him unique and standout from many travelers.
Boulting, William. Four pilgrims. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd., 1920.
Deepak, B. R. India and China: foreign policy approaches and responses. New Delhi, India: Vij Books India Pvt Ltd, 2016.
Hung, Eva Tsoi. ASIAN TRANSLATION TRADITIONS. S.l.: Taylor& Francis, 2016.
Li, Rongxi, trans. The great Tang dynasty record of the western regions. Vol. 51. California: BDK America, Inc., 1996.
Sen, Tansen. Buddhism, diplomacy, and trade: the realignment of Sino-Indian relations, 600-1400. New Delhi: Manohar, 2004.
Sen, Tansen. "The Travel Records of Chinese Pilgrims Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing." Education About Asia, Winter, 11, no. 3 (2006): 24-33.
Tripathi, Piyush Kumar . "Hiuen Tsang's legacy on display in Nalanda." The Telegraph. Accessed March 27, 2017. https://www.telegraphindia.com/1160326/jsp/bihar/story_76427.jsp#.WNlD4jt97IU.
Wriggins, Sally Hovey., and Sally Hovey. Wriggins. The Silk Road journey with Xuanzang. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004.
