The Four Kinds of Samadhi in Early T'ien-t'ai Buddhism

The Four Kinds of Samadhi in Early T'ien-t'ai Buddhism

Daniel B. Stevenson

I. The Institutional Context of the Four Kinds of Samadhi

In the Kuo-ch'ing pai-lu ("Record of One Hundred Items [Pertaining to] Kuo-ch'ing [[[Monastery]]]"), a text consisting of miscellaneous documents relating to the founding of the early T'ien-t'ai community, there is a short piece entitled Li chih-fa ("Establishing the Regulations").' Chih-i (538-59?)1_the great systematizer of early T'ien-t'ai thought and practice and the author of this treatise, began his teaching career in the Ch'en capital of Chin-ling in 568. Desiring a more stable environment in which to train his disciples and pursue his own practice, he withdrew to Mt. T'ien-t'ai in Chekiang province in 575, remaining there for ten years until 585, when he left the mountain to embark upon a period of intensive preaching in central and south China. When Chih-i once again returned to Mt. T'ien-t'ai in 595, he discovered that the monastic community had grown considerably larger and, along with its growth, discipline and spiritual commitment had declined. To redress this problem, Chih-i composed the Li chih-fa. The work is brief, consisting of a short introduction and a set of ten items that outline the basic routine of the monastery and prescribe rules and punishments for those areas of monastic life that Chih-i considered to be most essential. As is clear from the orientation and tone of the work, the primary concern is not to present a comprehensive code of temple organization and procedure, but simply to rectify and strengthen the spirit of a system that was already well established and quite familiar. The details are taken for granted, and, where the highlights of monastic life are mentioned, the emphasis is not so much on giving us a clear picture of procedure as it is on ensuring that it be pursued with the proper spirit. Nevertheless, as fragmentary as it is, the Li chih-fa presents the only firsthand account of the religious life as it was actually instituted by

Chih-i. It thus affords us a precious glimpse into the realities of early T'ien-t'ai self-cultivation. In the first entry of the Li chih-ja, Chih-i describes two basic approaches to liberation. The first is to practice alone deep in the mountains or forests far removed from others. The second approach, the one with which the Li chih-ja is predominantly concerned, is to practice with the support of a monastic community.

Altogether Chih-i distinguishes three basic modes of religous life within the T'ien-t'ai community: {l) "practicing seated meditation by resorting to the [[[Wikipedia:community|community]]] hall" (i t'ang tso-ch'an); (2) "attending to the practical affairs of the community of monks" (chih seng shih); and (3) "performing repentance in a sanctuary or place of practice set apart from others" (pieh ch' ang ch 'an-hui). The life of the main meditation hall appears to have been the focal point of the community at large. Individuals enrolled there submitted to a fixed regimen-comprised of communal meditation, worship, and attendance at lectures on Buddhist doctrine-that structured all aspects of their daily lives. This regimen was designed not only to provide an environment most conducive to realizing their own personal spiritual goals, but also to engender a momentum and sense of common commitment in the community that could, in turn, uplift everyone involved. Four periods of meditation, amounting to approximately eight hours, were scheduled over a given day and night. 2 In addition, community worship services were held at the six intervals of morning, noon, late afternoon, evening, midnight, and late night. 3 Communal meals were served twice daily, once in the morning and once at noon. Tardiness, disruptiveness, lack of spirit, or any deviation from the established procedure was met with swift discipline. Yet these rules themselves, and the measures taken to deal with such offenses, were not conceived in purely legalistic terms. In the case of minor infractions, the monk was required to prostrate and repent before the assembly. For more serious offenses, he was removed from the main hall and assigned, as a wei-na, to attend to menial affairs of the monastery. If a monk proved to be incorrigible, he was expelled from the temple entirely. No doubt removing trouble makers from the hall helped to ensure that the highest standards were maintained there, but the overriding message in the institutions of the Li chih-fa (even in such radical measures as these) was not so much one of exclusion as one of education and cooperation. Chih-i tell us, "Through yielding [on the part of the individual] there is harmony; from mutual acknowledgment there is joining together [in cooperation]."• His aim is to urge the student toward a genuine appreciation of the seriousness of both his own religious commitment and that of the community as a whole. As long as the monk in question makes progress in this regard, he has a place in the monastery. But if he persists

in being a problem for the community, there is no question what course of action will be taken. In the closing lines of the Li chih-fa, Chih-i sums up the principles guiding the regulations as follows: We establish the procedures on the basis of the siitras, and, upon seeing the illness, we determine the medicine. If you disregard the procedures and spit out the medicine, what benefit could there possibly be? Even in the case of one whose repentance regarding the nine regulations has already been heard, even though he may repent again and again, if he shows no sense of remorse, then he is a person who spits out the medicine, and it is fitting to expel him from the community. If he is able to change, one may later reconsider his return. But if he flaunts all the regulations and, always defending himself, is not willing to repent, then he is one who has absolutely no regard for the rules. If he cannot accord with the collective procedure of the community, he should not remain within it.'

The second form of religious activity described in the Li chih-fa, managing the affairs of the monastery, was designed, as Chih-i notes, "to promote the benefit and ensure the stability of the community at large."6 By dedicating their time and labor to handling the practical demands of the monastery, the managerial monks apparently enabled the community of monks in the main hall (or in solitary retreat) to devote themselves single-mindedly to worship and meditation. Unfortunately Chih-i does not give us any clear indication of how the ranks of managerial monks (or lay menials) were organized, what their various duties were, or what relation (if any) they had with the daily routines of the main hall. As we have already noted, the position of wei-na, which was a sort of managerial duty, was sometimes assigned as a form of penance for going against the regulations of the main hall. Elsewhere in the Kuoch 'ing pai-lu we hear of a type of temple menial known as ching-jen, "pure person." By the context in which the title is used, we can surmise that the ching-jen were probably laymen or novices (sramat:a), often of low class and little education, who were attached to the temple as laborers or servants. In one instance we hear of a young ching-jen named Shan-hsin, who was later given full bhiku precepts and admitted into the main assembly, indicating that a certain degree of mobility was available to the ching-jen. However, for the most part such persons seem to have been prohibited from participating in the community meditation, worship, and teachings.' Such examples create the impression that the managerial ranks were filled with delinquent monks or persons not worthy or capable of meeting the high standards of monastic life. Yet we must be cautious in drawing such conclusions, for our information is limited. As in the Zen monasteries of later periods, managerial duties may well have been taken up also by senior monks who, by virtue of their advanced abilities, did

not need to rely upon the meditation hall but could effectively continue their practice in the midst of any and all circumstances. • From Chih-i's brief descriptions of these two main functional aspects of the T'ien-t'ai community-the collective life of worship and meditation and the services of the managerial monks that supported itwe can see that the main hall was the heart of the monastery, the place where its fundamentals of learning and training were both preserved and imparted. However, Chih-i describes yet a third mode of religious practice that takes precedence even over this: the "repentance in a separate sanctuary" (pieh ch 'ang ch 'an-hui) or "practice [in a hall] apart from others" (pieh hsing) spoken of earlier. Monks, or_()n occasion even laymen, who showed exceptional motivation and promise were encouraged to leave the comirii.mity meditatiOn hall periodically and isolate themselves in retreat for given periods of time. There they took up any one of a set groiljfofhigtrly intensive and effective forms of practice known collectively <!S t_e "fo_llr ds or-amadhi' (ssu-chung san-mei). As Chih-i comments in the Li chih-fa: [A monk) zealously applies himself to cultivating the four kinds of samadhi because (practice] in the context of the community is lax. This is the point of practicing apart from others. Merely making a pretense of entering the sanc­ tuary [to practice] cannot be considered [to be in line with] its basic purpose! As used in the T'ien-t'ai expression "four kinds of samadhi," the term "samadhi" (Ch. san-mei) can have two basic meanings. On the one hand, it carries the more familiar sense of a general state of meditative absorption or ecstasy, which, in a strictly Buddhist context, may coyer a variety of experiences. There are the nine grades of mundane dhyana and various states of genuine liberative insight and cessation, such as the supramundane nirodha samlipatti, that are emphasized in the Hinayana tradition. Or there are the grand displays of omniscience characteristic of the samadhis of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the Mahayana where, as Etienne Lamotte has so appropriately stated, "l.?accent est mis non plus sur Ia technique de Ia concentration, mais sur Ia force magique (rddhibala) qui en decoule pour le plus grand bien des etres." 10

On the other hand, as it is used in T'ien-t'ai treatises, the term "samadhi" at times designates noi only the fruits of meditative practice but also the various mental and physical disciplines designed to evoke them. Lotus samadhi (fa-hua san-mei), for example, can refer both to an experience of samadhi cum enlightenment and to the particular form of practice, derived from the Lotus S!Ura, that produces it. The expression "four kinds of samadhi," which is uni_que to the T'ien-t'ai school, does not descdbe four states of samadhi, but four ways

of cultivating samadhi. In his Mo-ho chih-kuan ("[Treatise on] the Great Calming and DisCernment"), Chih-i gives what has become the classic definition of the four kinds of samadhi: Now if you wish to ascend to the stage of wondrous realization, you will not be able to reach it unless you practice. But if you become skilled at stirring and agitating [the raw milk], then the essence of ghee may be obtained. The Lotus Sutra says, "I also see the sons of Buddha cultivating all manner of practices in order to seek the path to Buddhahood." 11 There are many methods of practice, but we may summarize them under four sorts: (I) constantly sitting, (2) constantly walking, (3) part walking part sitting, and (4) neither walking nor sitting. By refering to them collectively as "samadhis," we mean [that one thereby] attunes, rectifies, and stabilizes [the mind]. The Ta-[chih-tu]lun ("Great [Perfection of Wisdom] Treatise") says, "Skillfully to fix the mind on one spot and abide there without shifting-that is called samadhi."" The Dharmadhatu is a "single spot," and through true discernment you can abide there and never stray from it. These four types of activity constitute the supporting condition [for meditation]. By discerning the mind and resorting to the supporting condition [of the four activities], one attunes and rectifies [the mind]. For this reason we call them samadhis."

The four categories of practice that Chih-i describes here are quite comprehensive in scope. As they are defined solely in terms of simple posture and physical activity, they could conceivably incorporate any form of spiritual discipline or technique of mental discernment. Undoubtedly this was in part the impression that Chih-i wished to convey when he remarked that virtually all forms of practice could be grouped under these four. However, in those instances throughout his works where Chih-i actually describes the contents of the four kinds of samadhi, the four categories of sitting, walking, part sitting part walking, and neither sitting nor walking are themselves identified with a very specific (and consistent) group of practices. 14 The technique of cultivating samadhi through constant sitting (ch 'ang-tso san-mei) is equated with a meditation known as one-practice samadhi (i-hsing san-mei), where the practitioner applies himself to sitting in meditation for a period of ninety days. Cultivating samadhi through constant walking (ch 'ang-hsing san-mei) is identified with a practice known as pratyutpanna samadhi (pan-chou san-mei), in which the meditator, also over a period of ninety days, cultivates samadhi while slowly circumambulating an altar dedicated to the Buddha Amitabha. Cultivating sam adh i through ·part walking and part sitting (panTzslng pan-tso san-mei) is associated with two practices: the Lotus samadhi (fahua san-mei) and jang-teng repentance (fang-teng ch 'an-fa). Both of these meditatiQns are structured around repeated cycles of walking and seated meditation. Cultivating samadhi neither through walking nor

through sitting (jei-hsing fei-tso san-mei) describes two types of practice. The first includes any form of structured meditation, worship, or spiri­ tual discipline that does not fit neatly into the rubric of walking and/or sitting described by the previous three categories. As his primary example, Chih-i cites the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance (ch 'ing Kuan-yin ch 'anfa). The second sort refers to a particular kind of free-form meditation that actively disavows adherence to any specific pattern or mode of activity. This he calls "sui-tzu-i," which essentially means "doing as one will" or, in a more technical sense, "cultivating samadhi wherever one's mind happens to be directed at the moment."

The works of Chih-i's master, Hui-ssu (515-577), as well as various references that appear in the biographies of both Hui-ssu and his immediate disciples, reveal that the one-practice, pratyutpanna, Lotus, and sui-tzu-i samadhis and the fang-teng and ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentances were also used in Hui-ssu's community. '5 More significantly, at that early date they appear to have already been established as a fixed set, with the same sort of importance that Chih-i outlined more fully some years later in such works as the Li chih-fa and Mo-ho chih-kuan. Hui-ssu's biography in the Hsii kao-seng-chuan ("Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks") records that, in his last address to his disciples just before his death, he remarked: If there were but ten of you who, without concern for body or life, would constantly apply yourselves to the practice of the Lotus, pratyutpanna, and mindfulness of Buddha (nien-jo) samadhis, as well as thejang-teng repentance, and [moreover would dedicate yourselves to] constant sitting in meditation and [the practice of] ascetic disciplines, then I personally would supply you with whatever you need. It would without question be to our mutual benefit." In the biography of Hui-ch'eng, one of Hui-ssu's foremost disciples, we find an indication of the way in which these practices were actually applied by Hui-ssu. In many respects it anticipates the role that Chih-i defines for the four kinds of samadhi in his Li chih-fa. The biography states: At the time [when Hui-ch'eng joined the assembly), there were several tens of persons applying themselves to the practice of dhyana, all of whom had already experienced attainments. As Ch'eng was a latecomer, he feared that he would not be able to fit in with them. So from dusk until dawn he would sit in meditation with his eyes open. Altogether he passed fifteen years doing this. [Hui-]ssu [also] had him repeatedly enter the sanctuaries for the practice of thejang-teng and Kuan-yin [repentances] and the Lotus and pratyutpanna [samadhis] in order to dissolve his obstructions. For three years he resorted to these practices. Finally his demonic disturbances, the demons

that plague dhyana practice, and the subtle causes of biased [attachment] having been dispersed, [Hui-ssu] revealed the True Dharma for him." Chih-i himself experienced his first taste of enlightenment while practicing the Lotus samadhi under Hui-ssu's tutelage on Mt. Ta-su.1' When he left Hui-ssu in 568 to begin his own career as a dhyana master, he employed these six practices as effective methods for training his own disciples. During the earliest phase of his career-the years between 568 and 575, when he first taught in Chin-ling-Chih-i composed manuals for the fang-teng repentance and the Lotus samadhi at the very least. 19 All six practices (one-practice samadhi, pratyutpanna samadhi, and so forth) are mentioned in his Shih ch 'an po-lo-mi tz'u-ti fa-men ("Elucidation of the Successive Dharma Gates of Perfection of Dhyana"), which also dates from this period. 20 Dating from the years beginning with Chih-i's withdrawal to Mt. T'ien-t'ai in 575, we find manuals for sui-tzu-i (chiieh-i san-mei), fang-teng repentance, ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance, and pratyutpanna samadhi. Additional references throughout Chih-i's works, as well as his biographies and those of his major disciples, corroborate that these six samadhi and repentance techniques continued to hold a major place in his scheme of practice. Consequently, even though the one-practice, pratyutpanna, Lotus, and sui-tzu-i samadhis and the fang-teng and ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentances were never explicitly systematized into an identifiable set prior to their being incorporated into the form of the four kinds of samadhi, they nevertheless had long functioned as a mainstay of meditation practice in the communities of both Hui-ssu and Chih-i and, as a group, received no noticeable additions or subtractions from their original number. The term "ssu chung san-mei" ("four kinds of samadhi") itself is not found in any of Hui-ssu's extant works, nor is it used in any of the materials dating from the earlier phases of Chih-i's career (i.e., his first

period of residence in Chin-ling and his ten year sojourn on Mt. T'ient'ai). 21 It appears for the first time in Chih-i's Fa-hua hsiian-i ("Abstruse Meaning of the Lotus Sfura"), which was compiled from lectures he delivered in Ching-chou in 593, only five years before his death. From this point on it is used regularly throughout most of his works, such as the Mo-ho chih-kuan, San-kuan i ("The Meaning of the Three Discernments"), Ssu-chiao i ("The Meaning of the Four Teachings"), and the short Kuan-hsin fun ("Treatise on Discerning the Mind"), his last compo­ sition. In terms of the volume of material that survives from these last years of Chih-i's life-from the time he departed Mt. T'ien-t'ai in 585 until his death in 597-this period seems to have been the most prolific of his career. Perhaps most significant, however, is the fact that in these last works we witness the maturation of those concepts and formulations that

came to be revered by subsequent tradition as the orthodox statement of T'ien-t'ai thought and practice. In the area of meditation we see the emergence of such schemes as the three [approaches to] calming and discerning (san chih-kuan), the ten spheres of discernment (shih kuanching),- and the famous ten modes of discernment (shih ch 'eng kuan­

fa). 22 Through such concepts as these, Chih-i sought to provide the general practitioner with fimdaiTI.ental principles of meditation practice that he could systematically apply to any one of the great variety of meditative techniques-Indian and Central Asian as well as native Chinesethat were circulating in China during his time. The scheme of four kinds of samadhi, which strives to classify and group different forms of meditation on the basis of their dominant mode of physical activity, may be numbered among these formulae. Yet, when we actually examine the references to the four kinds of samadhi in Chih-i's works, we find that the four categories are not only closely tailored to the ritual descriptions of the one-practice, pratyutpanna, Lotus, and sui-tzu-i samadhis and thejang-teng and ch 'ing Kuanyin repentances, but on numerous occasions are explicitly identified with them. This suggests, first of all, that Chih-i devised this scheme of the four kinds of samadhi specificially to accommodate this group of practices and, second, that, despite his intentions to extend this scheme to include any and all forms of meditation, he had essentially these six samadhi and repentance practices in mind when he used the expression "four kinds of samadhi." Therefore, when we begin to consider what forms of spiritual discipline were really at the heart of the early T'ien-t'ai school, or in what way Chih-i's more abstract models of meditation were put into concrete practice, this group of meditations, otherwise known as the four kinds of samadhi, emerges as one of the true pillars of T'ien-t'ai practice. Perhaps there is no better illustration of the importance with which Chih-i regarded them than his final admonition to his disciples while on his deathbed-an admonition that is strikingly similar to the one made by his master, Hui-ssu. When asked, "Whom can we regard as our teacher when you are gone?" Chih-i replied, "Haven't you ever heard [the Buddha's parting words]? The priitimoka is your master. Or, as I have always told you, take the four kinds of samadhi as your guide.""

The aim of this chapter is to describe in detail the individual practices of the four kinds of samadhi and to identify some of the features they have in common. The four kinds of samadhi were themselves one of the wellsprings from which T'ien-t'ai thought and practice originally flowed, and, over succeeding generations, they continued to function as one of the primary means by which T'ien-t'ai teachings and religious aspirations were put into practice. Furthermore, in their choice of practices-what they deemed most suitable and most effective-the T'ien-t'ai Samiidhi in Early T 'ien-t'ai Buddhism founders in many ways reflect some of the preferences in meditation and self-cultivation that later came to characterize East Asian Buddhism as a whole. The most_otable example along these lines is the practice of mindfulness of the Buddha {nienfo), which became the basis of the Pure Land traditions in China and Japan. The more formless approach of one-practice samadhi, as well as such techniques as sui-tzu-i and the advanced approach to the Lotus samadhi known as an-lo hsing, suggest certain parallels with the Ch'an tradition. The invocation of specific Buddhas and bodhisattvas through the use of dharai).I and visualization, as found in such quasi-esoteric practices as the fang-teng and ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentances, anticipates the interest in esoteric Buddhism of the T'ang period and the emergence of the great traditions of Shingon and Tendai esotericism in Japan. Finally, such activities as performing offerings, doing repentance, prostrating before the Buddhas, and reciting siitras represent an important facet of spirituality that touched the lives of all Buddhists throughout East Asia irrespective of sectarian distinctions. It is hoped, therefore, that this undertaking will not only contribute significantly to our appreciation of the realities of religious practice in the early T'ien-t'ai tradition, but also further our understanding of some of the underlying religious sensibilities that helped shape the character of East Asian Buddhism as a whole.

II. The Contents of the Four Kinds of Samadhi

Descriptions of the different practices that were incorporated into the scheme of the four kinds of samadhi can be obtained from a number of early T'ien-t'ai sources. As has already been mentioned, Hui-ssu and Chih-i both composed treatises dealing with these meditations. Preserved in the Taisho Daizokyo edition of the Buddhist canon are Fa-hua san-mei ch 'an-i ("The Procedure for [Performing] the Lotus Samadhi Repentance"), Fang-teng san-mei hsing-fa ("The Method for the Practice of Fang-teng Samadhi"), and Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa ("The Method for Practicing the Samadhi of Maintaining Awareness of Mind [Wherever Mind is Directed]")-manuals for the practice of Lotus samadhi, Fang-teng repentance, and sui-tzu-i samadhi (cultivating samadhi wherever mind is directed), respectively. All three works date from early in Chih-i's career. 24 Kuo-ch 'ing pai-lu, the compendium of T'ien-t'ai-related documents mentioned previously, contains three more brief manuals of this sort, all by Chih-i: Ch' ing Kuan-yin ch' an-fa ("The Method for [Performing] the Ch 'ing Kuan-yin Repentance"), a second Fang-teng ch' an-fa ("The Method for [Performing] the Fang-teng Repentance"), and Chin kuang-

ming ch' an-fa ("The Method for [Performing] the Chin kuang-ming Repentance")." The Ta-t'ang nei-tien /u, a catalog of Buddhist texts in the T'ang imperial collection that was compiled by the monk Tao-hsiian (596-667) about fifty years after Chih-i's death, includes among Chih-i's works a Pan-chou cheng-hsiang hsing-fa ("The Method for the Practice and [Verification of] Signs of Successful Realization of Pratyutpanna Samadhi") and a Ch' ing Kuan-yin hsing-fa ("The Method for the Practice of Ch 'ing Kuan-yin Repentance"). The former was a manual for the pratyutpanna samadhi. The latter is thought to have been another, longer, guide to the ch' ing Kuan-yin repentance. 26 Unfortunately both works have been lost.

Looking back to Chih-i's master, Hui-ssu, we find that he composed a Sui-tzu-i san-mei ("[Method for] Cultivating Samadhi Wherever Mind is Directed"), which is preserved in the Zoku Zokyo edition of the canon, and a work expounding the practice of the Lotus samadhi known as Fahua ching an-lo hsing i ("The Essential Meaning of the Course of Ease and Bliss [Set Forth] in the Lotus Siltra"), which appears in the Taisho Daizokyo. 27 Apart from the individual manuals themselves, the best overall account of the contents of these practices is found in the Mo-ho chihkuan, where Chih-i treats them together under a single lengthy discussion of the four kinds of samadhi. 2' The descriptions in the Mo-ho chih-kuan, however, are too brief and too lacking in the necessary details of procedure to function as guides to practice, and clearly were not intended to do so. In the case of the Lotus samadhi, fang-teng and ch' ing Kuan-yin repentances, and sui-tzu-i samadhi, where seperate manuals exist, our descriptive analysis of the four kinds of samadhi will rely on both sources, taking care to draw attention to any major discrepancies between the different accounts. For the one-practice and pratyutpanna samadhis we have no choice but to resort exclusively to the Mo-ho chihkuan. I. CULTIVATING SAMADHI THROUGH CONSTANT SITTING Chih-i identifies the first of the four kinds 'of samadhi with the practice known as i-hsing san-mei. The term "i-hsing san-mei," rendered here as "one-practice samadhi," is the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit ekavyilha-samadhi, which originally meant "samadhi of a single array." The Ta-p'in ching (Paficavimsatisahasrika-prajfiapliramitli-siltra, "The Siitra of the Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-five Thousand Lines") and its large commentary, the Ta-chih-tu-lun (both of which had a major impact on the thought of Hui-ssu and Chih-i), give this samadhi as the eightyfirst member in a list of one hundred and eight great samadhis of the Mahayana. The latter text says: Samiidhi in Early T'ien-t'ai Buddhism This samadhi constantly avails itself of a single practice [wherein the practiJ· tioner] is in touch with ultimate emptiness. In this samadhi there is no cultit vation by successive stages of practice of the sort that [we find in the four stations of mindfulness], where from the cultivation of [the insight of] impermanence there next develops the practice of [mindfulness] of pain, and from [mindfulness of pain] it progresses to the [mindfulness] of no-self. Furthermore, [when coursing in this samadhi, the practitioner] does not see this shore [of birth and death] nor any other shore [of nirvaQa]. ,. Although Chih-i and Hui-ssu were certainly aware of this reference, they chose to rely, as a scriptural basis for the practice, on the more substantial account of i-hsing san-mei that appears in the Wen-shu-shih-li soshuo po-jo po-lo-mi ching (Saptasatika-prajiailip ramitii-siltra; "Siitra on the Perfection of Wisdom Spoken by Mafijusrl" -hereafter Wen-shu shuo ching), supplementing it with material from the Wen-shu-shih-li wen ching (Maiijusrr-pariprccha-sutra; "Siitra [Spoken at] the Behest of Mafijusri").

As Chih-i describes it in the Mo-ho chih-kuan, one-practj(;e __ amadhi is to be performed in a quiet room or a secluded and untrammeled spot. The essendai requisite is that the immediate environs be free of any disturbance, human or otherwise. Only a single rope bed for meditation is to be placed in the hall; no other seats or daises should be added. The practice itself lasts for a fixed period of ninety days and may be performed alone or in a small group. Over the entire duration of this three month period the meditator applies himself zealously to the practice of sitting motionless in the traditional "lotus" meditation posture. With the exception of brief stretches of walking meditation (ching-hsing) and attending to such necessities as eating and relieving himself, he vows never to sleep, lie down, stand, wander aimlessly about, or lean against any object for support. For this reason the practice is referred to as "constant sitting." In accordance with the Wen-shu shuo ching, Chih-i distinguishes two basic approaches to meditative practice in the one-practice samadhi: the radical approach of directly contemplating the reality of the Dharmadhatu (or the Dharma-body of the Buddha) and the more expedient approach of concentrating the mind on the name, idealized image, and merits (body of form) of a particular Buddha. Providing that the meditator posesses the requisite meditative skill, the ideal approach is to "renounce all fallacious theories, cast aside all confused thinking, refrain from any random pondering, avoid seizing upon any characteristics, and simply absorb oneself completely in the direc_t experiencing of all objects as [identical to] the Dharmadhatu and in contemplating one's own [subjective] mind as [also] being uniform with the Dharmadhatu."31 Chih-i goes on to explain: ·

[To think of trying to] realize the Dharmadhatu by means of the Dharmadhatu is absurd. There is no realization, nor is there any attaining of anything. One discerns that the characteristics [peculiar to] sentient beings are the same as the characteristics of a Buddha and that the extent of the realm of sentient beings is just the same as the extent of the domain of the Buddhas. The extent of the domain of the Buddhas is inconceivable, and, likewise, the extent of the realm of sentient beings is also inconceivable. Dwelling in the realm of sentient beings is [ultimately]like dwelling in empty space. Through this teaching of non-abiding and this teaching of nocharacteristics, one comes to dwell in prajfia. Not seeing any profane qualities, what is there to cast off? Not finding any sagely qualities, what is there to appropriate? The same is true for nirvaoa and cyclic existence, purity and defilement. Neither rejecting nor grasping, one abides directly in ultimate reality."

If the meditator becomes exhausted, or illness and other forms of obstruction begin to overwhelm his powers of contemplation, or if he is a novice who has not yet developed the powers of meditative insight necessary to take up this first type of discernment effectively, then he turns to the second more tangible approach. Selecting a Buddha of his own choosing, he faces in the direction of that particular Buddha's realm and single-mindedly "invokes that Buddha's name (ch 'eng i fo miilg-tzu), generates a deep sense of shame [over his own inability to practice as he should], repents, and entrusts his fate to him."" Viewed purely from a psychological perspective, these more tangible techniques function tbetapeutically as valuable aids to meditation. The figure of a particular Buddha and the repeated recitation of his name provide a solid support for concentration, enabling the meditator quickly to focus and calm his minowheri it is disturbed or to ward off drowsiness when he is exhausted: Prayer, self-reflection, and repentance can help to release emoti6iialf'itessi1fes that oppress the practitioner's spirit and hin­der the equilibrium and ease necessary for deeper meditation. However, the benefit of these techniques need not be limited solely to the psychological. In theory the simple act of reciting the name, repenting, and professing faith in evenaslrigle Buddha kltself capable of generating great religious power, for such a deed, Chih-i tells us, "is fully equivalent in merit to invoking the names of all the Buddhas of the Ten Directions."34 If the practitioner can apply himself to this kind of practice with wholehearted faith and sincerity, not only can it help to bring his mind under control, but he can move the Buddhas to communicate their power and blessings to him, thereby removing his obstructions directly. Chih-i explains:

When a person is joyous or depressed, if he raises his voice to sing or cry out, then his sorrow or humor will be released. It is similar for the practi-

tioner. The wind [of emotion] touches the seven spots and initiates a physi­ cal response, and, when the voice comes forth from the lips, it becomes the act of speech. These two deeds [of body and speech] are able to assist the mind in forming a stimulus that moves the Buddha to send down [his blessings]." Apparently, such expedients as fixing one's mind on the Buddha, repenting, and chanting his name were intended to function in close conjunction with the meditation on the Dharmadhatu. Unfortunately, Chihi does not give us a full explanation of how this meditation on the Buddha is to be performed and how it is ultimately to be reconciled with the meditation on the Dharmadhatu.

The account of one-practice samadhi in Kuan-ting's Kuan-hsin fun shu ("Commentary to the Treatise on Discerning the Mind") suggests that visualization of the Buddha's form and mindfulness of his merits may have been practiced concurrently with the invocation of his name. The treatise says: "When the practitioner takes up mindfulness of a particular Buddha ( nien i fo), he must [grasp the fact that] the merits [of this Buddha] are fully equivalent to the merits of [all] the Buddhas of the Ten Directions. He should also [accompany this] with invoking [that] Buddha's name out loud (ch 'eng-ch 'ang fo- ming). "36 Furthermore, embedded in the Mo-hoc hih-kuan 's description of the meditation upon the Dharmadhatu, we find a discussion of the expressions "discerning or visualizing the Tathagata" ( kuan ju-lai) and "seeing the marks of a Buddha" (chien fo hsiang hao). The main thrust of this particular section is to assert that any image or characterization of a Buddha is ultimately equivalent to "no mark" and that the discernment of such features is fundamentally an empty enterprise, akin to "seeing the reflection of one's own image on the surface of water." 37 Significantly, much of the discussion here revolves around a passage from the Wen-shu wenching, which reads:

By resorting to [invocation of the Buddha's] name, mindfulness is strengthened. [Once one] perceives the minor and major marks of the Buddha [through visualization], samadhi proper is complete. Once samadhi proper is complete, one perceives all the Buddhas. These Buddhas are perceived in the same manner as one sees one's own image reflected on the surface of water. This is known as the initial [experience of] samadhi. 38 Chih-i's interest in this passage may well indicate that he used such expedients as reciting the Buddha's name and visualizing the Buddha's form in a manner similar to the one described in the passage. If so, his critique of these expedients from the standpoint of emptiness and the dialectics of prajiia was perhaps a necessary step for ultimately linking them with the meditation on the Dharmadhatu. We shall say no more

about such a procedure here, for the account of pratyutpanna samadhi in the section that follows deals with this phenomenon in considerable detail and may itself serve as a suitable explanation. The essential point to bear in mind for now is that the radical approach of complete "non-abiding" and immediate identification with the Dharmadhatu and the expedient approach of fixing the mind on the Buddha's form and reciting his name were intended to function in close support of one another. If thoroughly pursued enough, either can convey the meditator to the same end, whereby, as Chih-i describes it, he "enters one-practice samadhi, perceives all the Buddhas face to face, and ascends to the stage of assurance of full bodhisattvahood (ju p 'u-sa wei)." 39

2. CULTIVATING SAMADHI THROUGH CONSTANT WALKING

Constantly walking samadhi is identified with the practice known as pratyutpanna samadhi. The term "pan-chou san-mei," which for the sake-or-convenience we render as "pratyutpanna samadhi," is a Chinese transliteration of the lengthy Sanskrit compound pratyutpanna-buddhaSaf!lmukhiivasthita-samiidhi, "the samadhi wherein one finds oneself standing face to face with all the Buddfias of the present age." This particular samadhi appears to have been one of the better known Mahayana samadhis, for mention of it can be found throughout any number of early Mahayana sutras and commentaries. 4° Chih-i derives his views concerning this samadhi and its practice from two main scriptural sources. The first is the Pan-chou san-mei ching (Pratyutpannasamiidhi-sutra). The earliest Chinese translation of this scripture (the one on which Chih-i relies) is said to have been done by the Central Asian monk Lokakema during the last years of the second century. 41 The second is the Shih-chu pi-p 'o-sha fun (Dasabhumika[sutra]vibhiisa), a lengthy work consisting of a detailed exegesis of the first two of the ten bodhisattva stages of the Dasabhumika-sutra. This text is attributed to Nagarjuna and was translated into Chinese by Kumarajiva during the first decade of the fifth century. 42 In addition to the Shih-chu pi-p 'o-sha fun, we find that pratyut­panna samadhi also figures prominantly in the Ta-chih-tu-lun. 43 Both works cite the Pan-chou san-mei ching as the locus classicus for this samadhi. Therefore, it would be quite natural for Hui-ssu and Chih-i to use Lokakema's ancient translation of this sutra (the only one available at the time) together with the Shih-chu pi-p'o-sha fun as their two primary sources for this practice.

Like the one-practice samadhi, the pratyutpanna samadhi is to be performed in-isolation. The meditator selects and adorns a hall for practice, prepares all the necessary accoutrements of offering, and lays out various delicacies, fruit, incense, and flowers. Having washed himself thoroughly, he changes into a new set of robes, which is to be worn at all

times in the inner sanctuary where the practice is performed. Whenever he leaves this chamber to tend to necessities, he changes once again into an older set. The practice itself lasts for a fixed period of ninety days, over the duration of which the meditator must contiuously circumambulate an altar to the Buddha Amitabha. He vows never to entertain worldly thoughts or desires, never to lie down or leave the hall, and, aside from the times when he eats his meals, never arbitrarily to sit down or stop to rest until the three months are completed.44 Given the strenuous nature of the practice, its success depends heavily on the support and close interaction of three other individuals aside from the practitioner himself. They are the instructor, the outer attendant, and the companion in the practice. The instructor must be well versed in the practice and skilled in recognizing and alleviating obstructions. The practitioner, in turn, must have absolute faith in his guidance. The outer attendant takes care of all the meditator's practical needs and watches over him day and night, "as a mother protects her child." The exact nature of the third party, the "companion in the practice" (t' unghsing), is ambiguous. There are certain indications that the term referred to additional meditators, which would mean that pratyutpanna samadhi (like the one-practice samadhi and the fang-teng and ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentances) was not necessarily practiced alone, but could be undertaken collectively. Yet another possibility is that the companion in the practice was a monitor whose duty it was constantly to encourage the meditator and ensure that he kept his vows. In either case, Chih-i tells us that this individual must be "stern in appearance and strict [in character]" and otherwise fully capable of inspiring the meditator to persevere. 45 The meditative discernment itself centers around the visualization of the thirty-two major marks and eighty minor excellent qualities of the Buddha Amitabha. This practice is performed repeatedly, "in reverse order from the thousand-spoked wheels on the soles of his feet to the indiscernable U$1JT$a on the crown of his head, and then in the normal order from the crown of the head back to the thousand-spoked wheel." The visualization is carried out concurrently with the invocation of the Buddha's name and slow circumambulation of the hall so that, "step after step, recitation after recitation, recollection after recollection, [the practitioner's] min<!fulness is wholly upon the Buddha Amitabha."46

The devotional element in this practice, just as in the one-practice samadhi, undoubtedly plays a key role; however, as the practitioner becomes more skilled at constructing the mental image of the Buddha, the or_ientation of the visualization begins to shift radically. Eventually the eidetic image of Amitabha loses its devotional character altogether and instead becomes the basis for a simple dialectical investigation into the nature of mind and the noetic act itself. 47 Citing a passage from the Pan-chou san-mei ching, Chih-i describes the technique as follows:

Where does the Buddha that I am contemplating come from? [He does not come from somewhere else, and] I do not go off to reach him. Whatever [feature] I turn my attention to thereupon appears. This Buddha is simply mind perceiving mind. Mind is the [visualized] Buddha [that is the object, and likewise] mind is the [subjective] "I" [that sees the Buddha]. When it perceives the Buddha, mind is not itself aware of mind, nor does it itself perceive mind. When the mind gives rise to thoughts, then there is delusion. When it is free of thoughts, it is nirval)a." On the basis of the Shih-chu pi-p 'o-sha fun, Chih-i distinguishes three levels to the practice of "mindfulness of Buddha" (nien-fo). The first involves the mindfulness or contemplation of a Buddha through the visualization of the major marks and minor excellent qualities of his idealized physical form. The second is the contemplation of the more abstract qualities that mark a Buddha's spiritual omniscience, such as the forty qualities unique to a Buddha (iive!Jikabuddhadharmiih). The third and final stage involves the contemplation or mindfulness of Buddha as he is in his essence-the essential nature or true character of all phenomena (sarvadharmabhutatii). •• At this stage all vestiges of discrimination and dualistic thinking, together with any sense of Buddha being a real entity or an object of devotion, completely vanish, and reality stands directly revealed. Citing the Shih-chu pi-p'o-sha fun, Chih-i explains: He does not cling to the [Buddha's] body of form, nor does he adhere to the [Buddha's essence] body of Dharma, but thoroughly realizes that all phenomena are eternally quiescent just like empty space. '0

The manner in which pratyutpanna samadhi integrates various devotional elements and expedient supports for meditative discernment with the more abstract and intangible discernments of the Dharma-body or the Dharmadhatu suggests close parallels with one-practice samadhi. Both meditations recognize the effectiveness of resorting to the image and grace of the Buddhas as a powerful medium for practice; yet place final emphasis on mind (and a critique of the mind's fundamental role in the generation of all forms of deluded existence) as the ultimate ground of discernment and realization. The Pan-chou san-mei ching designates three main factors from which pratyutpanna samadhi draws its strength and by virtue of which it is able to produce enlightenment quickly. The first is the sustaining power or grace (adhi${hiina) of the Buddha. The second is the power of samadhi of the practitioner himself. And the third is the power that derives from the stock of merit that the practitioner has accumulated over his past (and present) lives. This rationale may just as easily be applied to one-practice samadhi or any other form of meditation involving the two elements of reliance on the supportive grace of Buddhas and bodhisattvas and-the powers of

one's own meditative discernment. In the particular case of pratyutpanna samadhi, the source of supportive grace is the Buddha Amitabha. Naturally this feature calls to mind the practice of seeking rebirth in the Pure Land of Sukhiivati through meditation upon the Buddha Amitabha. Chih-i openly states that rebirth there is one of the benefits to be derived

from pratyutpanna samadhi but is not its principal aim. "Invoking Amitabha's [name] is equivalent to invoking [the names of] all the Buddhas," Chih-i tells us, "so in this case we simply focus on Amitabha as the essential gate of access to Dharma."" Through his grace and the practitioner's own powers of meditation and merit, the practitioner does not simply perceive Amitabha and his Pure Land but is able to achieve the climactic vision of pratyutpanna-buddha-Saf!lmukhiivasthitasamiidhi itself: On entering samadhi, he is able to perceive all the Buddhas of the present age in all the Ten Directions standing directly before him. As many stars as a person with keen eyesight can see on a clear night-that is how many Bud­ dhas he sees!"

3· CULTIVATING SAMADHI THROUGH PART WALKING AND PART SITTING

Partly sitting and partly walking samadhi is identified with two different practices: thefang-teng repentance and the Lotus samadhi. A. The Fang-teng Repentance

The fang-teng repentance is based on the Fang-teng t'o-lo-ni ching

(" Fang-teng or Vaipuly a Dharai)I Sutra"), a quasi-esoteric Buddhist scripture translated into Chinese by the monk Fa-chung during the Northern Liang dynasty. 54 Like the previous two samadhi practices, this repentance is to be performed in a secluded hall that has been carefully purified and arranged for this purpose. As the fang-teng repentance

places great emphasis on ritual purity and strict adherence to ritual procedure, instructions concerning the preparations and performance of the cerem_.gny are far more detailed than in either the one-practice or pratyutpanna samadhis." The Fang-teng san-mei hsing-fa, Chih-i's earliest and lengthiest manual for the practice, specifies that there be four separate rooms consisting of a central sanctuary, a bath house, and two antechambers. During the course of the retreat, the meditator must perform ritual ablutions three times a day. Whenever he passes in or out of the inner sanctum, whether he be on his way to or on his way from the performance of his ablutions or any other necessity, he must change robes and undergo vari-

ous rituals of purification in the two antechambers. These are designed to protect the sanctuary from defilement. In the event that the meditator finds himself unable to make such elaborate preparations, he is permitted to reduce the number of rooms to three, two, or even one. However, if he uses a single chamber he must ritually demarcate (and carefully maintain) specific areas for performing the required purifications and changes of garb.

In the initial preparation of the repentance chambers, the inner sanctuary is first rubbed with perfumed mud or paste, then sprinkled with purified water and dried with fire. A circular altar is constructed, on which the practitioner places tenty-four raised thrones; on these thrones he then enshrines images of the twenty-four patron deities of the practice.,. Finally a mirror is added to protect the hall from evil influences, and a five-colored cloth canopy is suspended over the altar. To complete the preparation of the site, a low dais (presumably for the practitioner himself) is arranged facing the images on the altar, and numerous multicolored paintings and banners are draped around the walls to give the hall "the semblance of a Pure Land." The repentance ceremony proper must commence on either the eighth or the fifteenth day of the lunar month. A period of seven days is stipulated as the minimum length of the retreat; however, this may be extended, at the practitioner's discretion, to a period of several months or even years." As many as ten persons may take part. Prior to beginning the practice itself, all prospective participants must undergo a week of purification and preparation. During this time they maintain constant vigilance over themselves, repent past sins, and offer prayers in an effort to seek an auspicious dream from one of the twelve dream kings (meng-wang) who protect the Fang-teng t'o-lo-ni ching and its practices. If a dream occurs, it signifies that permission has been granted for that individual to perform the repentance. Once this condition has been fulfilled, the participants then master the essential dharal)f and ritual procedures to be used in the practice and are administered twenty-four special precepts that they must adhere to over the course of the retreat. By the time the repentance itself is ready to begin, "their minds must be set solely upon [the goal of] the most supreme and perfect enlightenment.""

The daily regimen of the fang-teng repentance consists of repeated cycles of the following pattern of activities:"

I. Making offerings, followed by prostrations, repentance, vows, and ritual ablutions

2. Circumambulation of the hall, accompanied by recitation of the dharal)I

3. Prostrations, repentance, and vows

4. Sitting in meditation

5. Circumambulation of the hall, accompanied by recitation of the dharal)f

6. Sitting in meditation

On the morning of the first day, extended invocations are performed, and the altar is adorned with elaborate offerings of flowers, rare incenses, lamps, and various fragrant broths and delicacies. Over the remainder of the retreat, however, this phase of the ritual cycle is reduced to a bare minumum and greater emphasis is placed on the two main activities of walking (while concurrently reciting the dharal)f) and seated meditation. It is for this reason that Chi h-i classifies the fang-teng repentance as a partly walking partly sitting samadhi.

All three sources for thefang-teng repentance give rather rigid specifications for the number of circumambulations and recitations to be performed by the meditator during each ritual cycle. In the Fang-teng sanmei hsing-ja, however, Chih-i indicates that the length and frequency of the periods of seated meditation and walking meditation have some degree of flexibility and can be adjusted to suit the practitioner's particular needs or inclinations of the moment. Walking, for example, can be used to counteract drowsiness, and sitting can be applied to ease exhaustion and collect the scattered mind, or to provide warmth (if the practice is being performed in a cold climate). "The practitioner," Chih-i explains in the chapter on "Adjusting [the Practice of] Circumambulation" in the Fang-teng san-mei hsing-ja, "must be well acquainted with [the principles of applying different procedures to] counteract [problematic states of mind] and should employ these [techniques] to his benefit."60

Regarding the dharal)f, or "spell," that lies at the heart of the jangteng repentance, Chih-i says: [The practitioner] contemplates (ssu-wei) the Mo-ho t'an ch 'ih t 'o-/o-ni. In translation this means, "The Great Secret Essence That Checks Evil and Secures the Good." The "secret essence" is none other than the genuine emptiness of the Middle Way, [which is itself] the true character [of all phenomena].•' The Sanskrit term "dharal)f," derived from the root dhii, "to hold" or "to retain," carries the general meaning of something that enables one to retain, recollect, secure, hold, and so forth. Chih-i's description of dharal)f as securing the good" and "checking evil" renders this basic idea and, in fact, itself seems to derive directly from a definition of the term given in the Ta-chih-tu-lun, which states: "Dharal)l" is a word from the western regions. In this region it translates as "able to secure" or else "able to check." As for being able to secure, it

gathers and secures various wholesome qualities and is able to hold and secure them and prevent them from being scattered or lost. ... As for being able to abolish, when evil or unwholesome propensities arise, it is able to check them and prevent them from manifesting." The term "dharal)l," however, also took on the more commonly known meaning of a spell or incantation that secures a particular power or spiritual essence. This meaning is probably the basis for Chih-i's additional rendering of "dharal)l" as "secret essence" (mi-yao). In the case of the dharal)l employed in the jang-teng repentance, the power or essence with which it is identified is the liberating insight of the Middle Way itself. Significantly, we find the same sort of association made for the dharal)l of the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance as well. Chih-i's disciple Kuan-ting remarks in his commentary to the sutra on which the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance is based: The essential substance [of this dharanf] is none other than the essential substance of the true discernment of the reality [of all phenomena].I t is neither empty nor existent.I t checks the evil activities (karma) [that arise on the basis] of the two extremes [of dualistic thinking] and secures the genuine good of the Middle Way."

Consequently, the evil that these dharal)l remove is not simply evil or unwholesome qualities as they are conventionally understood, but the misconceptions and evil propensities that comprise the very root of cyclic existence itself. In his explanation of how the fang-teng repentance removes sins, Chih-i distinguishes three fundamental layers or types of obstruction (san-chang). The first, and most fundamental, is known as the obstruction of vexation (fan-nao chang), which refers to the three basic poisons of lust, anger, and delusion that form the root of birth and death. 64 The second is the obstruction of reciprocity or endowment (pao chang), which refers to obstructions posed by defects of mental and physical endowment such as illness, impairment of the mind and senses, and so forth. The third is known as the obstruction of deed or karma (yeh chang), which refers to obstructions that arise in response to deedsdeeds in this case referring to those that contravene the Buddhist teachings and codes of morality and consequently cause the individual to become further and further removed from the Path. The dharal)l used in the fang-teng repentance is in theory capable of removing all three types of obstructions. But the actual accomplishment of this end is not something automatically guaranteed by simple recitation of the dharai)L The key to the dharal)l's efficacy (and that of the repentance as a whole) lies in the extent to which the practitioner's own

mind is in touch with the "secret essence" -the true insight of the Middle Way_:_that the dhara1,1i embodies. Therefore, Chih-i emphasizes the neces-sity of incorporating meditative discernment into all phases of the practice. In the manua.I fromthel<uo-ch 'ing pai-lu, he describes meditation amidst the activities of recitation, circumambulation, and sitting as follows:

., When [the practitioner] discerns the sound of the voice while he is reciting the spell, he finds that the sound cannot be apprehended. It is without any

self-substance, like an echo in an empty valley. When he discerns his feet while circumambulating, he finds that the feet cannot be apprehended. They are [insubstantial] like a cloud or a reflected image and neither come nor go. When he sits to practice meditation, he contemplates the mind of the instant and sees that it does not arise from the faculty of mind alone, does not arise solely on the basis of external objects, does not arise from any combination of the two, and does not arise totally independent of them. .. . Ultimately there is no instant of thought to be found, and he cannot determine where mind arises.T here is only the name "arising." The name is not inside, outside, or in between; therefore this name is no-name.H aving discerned mind in this fashion, he finds that the same also holds true for all phenomena produced from the mind .... What is sin? What is blessing? By virtue of his powers of insight, he suddenly realizes enlightenment.H is insight into emptiness is bright and thorough.O nly when [a person himself] drinks does he know that the water is cool; so similarly [this practitioner] alone is totally clear [about this] while others do not see it.T he merits of wisdom and samadhi that he has acquired are completely inexpressible. Once you have experienced awakening like this, you will know for yourself that your obstructions have been eliminated, and you will not [need to] wait for further discrimination [regarding this fact]."

The general procedure that Chih-i prescribes for meditating amidst the different ritual activities of walking, reciting, sitting, and so forth, is quite close in character to the sort of dialectic we find applied to the discernment of the eidetic image of the Buddha in the one-practice and pratyutpanna samadhis. Attenion is shifted away from the professed reli­gious value or significance of the ritual acts themselves and directed instead toward a critique of the fundamental mental processes by which they (together with all other phenomena) are conceived. Through dialectical exposure of the assumptions that undergird this process, mind and phenomena are revealed as inherently empty and identical with the single and unchanging Dharmadhatu. In the Fang-/eng san-mei hsing fa, Chi h-i remarks:

Even though [at this point the meditator does not experience any sense of] discerner or discerned, nevertheless [this is not a blank state of mind, for he is clearly aware that] in their essential nature [the multitude of] phenomena

are perfectly uniform and are neither defiled nor pure. This in itself [constitutes their] true nature.T his true nature [of all phenomena] is not defiled by birth and death in the twenty-five states of [deluded] existence,n or is it puri­ fied by the myriad [Buddhist] practices. As such,d efiled and pure are a single continuum ...l ike empty space. This is known as "ultimate purity." It is also referred to as "the true suchness that is the very nature of mind [itself]," or "the Dharmadhatu that is the nature of mind [itself]." It is the fundamental wellspring of all the Buddhas,t he ultimate reality of all sentient beings_.' On the basis of the practitioner's relative skills of meditative discernment, Chih-i distinguishes two general approaches to the fang-teng repentance. The first is known as repentance [based solely on] phenomenal activities (shih ch 'an-hui) and the second, as repentance that accords with Principle (li ch 'an-hui). 67 Repentance based on phenomenal activities is directed toward the unskilled or novice practitioner-the practitioner who is unable to discern the emptiness of mind and phenomenal features effectively and thus has no other recourse but to fix his mind as well as he can on the phenomenal features of the activity at hand. Repentance that accords with Principle is conceived in terms of the more advanced meditator who is able to maintain a steady awareness of the Principle (li) that mind and any activities or distinctions it initiates are themselves none other than the "true emptiness of the Middle Way" or the all pervading Dharmadhatu.

Together these two approaches to thefang-teng repentance mark the upper and lower limits of an entire continuum of possibilities for meditative discernment. In a manner quite similar to the one-practice and pratyutpanna samadhis, they allow the meditator freedom to adjust the practice to suit his particular level of ability. As circumstances require, he may resort wholly to phenomenal features, or he may apply dialectical discernment to those features in an effort to elicit insight into their emptiness. He may also dispense with such expedients altogether and contemplate the Dharmadhatu directly. His approach is by no means limited to the extremes of either phenomena or Principle alone. Theoretically speaking, repentance (and invocation of the dharai)I) performed solely on the basis of phenomenal activities can at best remove the two obstructions of endowment and deed; it cannot remove the root obstruction of vexation. This means that it may eliminate sins that obstruct the path and help to reinstate a practitioner to the Buddhist teachings and precepts, or it may change the individual's karmic fortune, cure illness, remove impairment of the senses or the physique, and so forth. Since this approach is weak in meditative discernment, however, it alone cannot liberate one from birth and death. Only when thefang-teng repentance is performed in accord with Principle does it become capable

of uprooting the obstruction of vexation together with all the forms of deluded existence that evolve from it. Drawing upon a passage from the Ta fang-teng t'o-/o-ni ching, Chih-i explains that, when the approach of Principle reaches its culmination and the obstruction of vexation is removed, "[the practitioner] comes to perceive all the Buddhas of the Ten Directions, hear them preach Dharma, and attain the stage of non-retrogression [on the bodhisattva path]."6

B. Lotus Samlidhi

Fa-hua san-mei, or the Lotus samadhi, takes two basic forms. The first is a twenty-one day practice based upon the twenty-eighth chapter of the Lotus Stura, "The Chapter on the Exhortations of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra" (P'u-hsien p'u-sa ch' iian-fa p'in), and on a short scripture known as the Kuan p'u-hsien p'u-sa hsing-fa ching ("The Siitra on the Practice of Visualizing the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra"). •• This meditation centers around intensive worship and recitation of the Lotus Siltra and the performance of a formalized confession ceremony known as repentance of the six senses (liu-ken ch' an-hui). For this reason the practice is often referred to by the alternate name of Lotus repentance (Fa-hua ch 'an-fa). The second form of Lotus samadhi is called an-lo hsing ("the practice or course of ease and bliss"), after the title of the fourteenth chapter of the Lotus Sutra (An-lo hsing p'in), from which it was originally derived. 70 This approach dispenses with the format of the twenty-one day practice and concentrates wholly on the cultivation of deep samadhi without the hindrance of fixed time limits or the interruption of ritual proceedings. Chih-i's master, Hui-ssu, refers to these two approaches to Lotus samadhi as practice possessing distinguishing characteristics (yu-hsiang hsing) and practice devoid of distinguishing characteristics (wu-hsiang hsing). Hui-ssu explains their differences as follows:

Practice devoid of characteristics is none other than the course of ease and bliss (an-to hsing). While in the very midst of all phenomena, [the practitioner discerns that] mental characteristics are quiescent and extinguished and ultimately do not arise. Therefore it is called practice devoid of characteristics. He is constantly immersed in all the profound and wonderful dhyana absorptions because in all activities-walking, standing, sitting, lying down, eating, or speaking-his mind is always settled [in samadhi . . . . The profound and wonderful dhyana absorptions that are experienced in the course of ease and bliss are not at all like [the nine successive grades of mundane dhyana taught in the Abhidharma]. [The practitioner] does not resort to the desire realm, nor dwell in the form or formless realms. When he courses in this kind of [wonderful] dhyana, it is the universally pervading

practice of the bodhisattva. Because there is no mental fluctuation whatsoever, it is called practice devoid of characteristics. Further, there is the practice possessing characteristics , which is the practice of reciting the Lotus Sarra and striving diligently with the ordinary scattered mind as is taught in "The Chapter on the Exhortations of Samantabhadra" [of the Lotus Satra]. A person undertaking this [approach] neither cultivates dhyana nor strives to enter samadhi. Whether sitting, standing , or walking , he concentrates his whole attention on the words of the Lotus Sarra and perseveres zealously without lying down [to rest], as though he were trying to put out a fire blazing on his head. This is called the practice possessing characteristics [that relies upon] the written text.

According to Chih-i's manual for the Lotus samadhi, Fa-hua sanmei ch 'an-i," the twenty-one day Lotus repentance is to be performed alone in a hall consisting of a central sanctuary with an adjoining room for seated meditation. A high throne is set up in the sanctuary, on which a single copy of the Lotus Sutra is enshrined. No other images, relics, or scriptures of any kind may be added. A canopy is placed over the altar, and banners are hung about the room. Two sets of robes are prepared-a new one to be worn only in the inner sanctum and an older set to be worn elsewhere. The practitioner must change robes whenever he passes in or out of the sanctuary. Prior to beginning the actual repentance, the meditator undergoes a week of purification during which he strives to prepare himself spiritually (through worship, reflection, and repentance) and perfect the recitations and ritual procedures that will be used in the practice. At dawn on the day he is to enter the hall, the practitioner cleans and sweeps the floor of the sanctuary, sprinkles it with perfumed water, and scours it with perfumed mud. On the altar he arranges oil lamps and flowers and burns rare incense powders. The repentance commences with elaborate invocations and offerings to the Three Jewels and a host of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. However, just as in thefang-teng repentance, this rite is performed only in an abbreviated form over the rest of the retreat.

During the twenty-one days of the practice the meditator performs the following set of rituals at each of the six intervals of the day and night:

1. Offering of the Three Deeds of body, speech, and mind

2. Praising of the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha

3. Prostrations and veneration of various Buddhas

4. Recitation of the formula for repentance of the [sins of the] six sense faculties

5. Closing praises of the Three Jewels and recitation of the formula of the Three Refuges

The repentance of the six senses, the longest and most intricate part of the ceremony, consists of five phases that have subsequently come to be known in T'ien-t'ai tradition as the five penances or the fivefold repentance (wu-hui): (l) actually confessing or repenting for one's sins (ch 'an-hui); (2) imploring the Buddhas to remain in the world and turn the wheel of the teaching (ch' iian-ch 'ing); (3) sympathetically rejoicing in the merits of others (sui-hsi); (4) dedicating one's merits toward the enlightenment of all beings (hui-hsiang); and (5) setting forth the vow to save all beings (fa-yiian). 73 The name, "repentance of the six senses," derives from the fact that the first phase of this five-part penance-the confession of sinsinvolves the ritual recitation of six long formulae for confessing all the sins that one has accumulated over one's past lives due to the misuse of the six sense faculties. Throughout the entire procedure, the meditator visualizes the bodhisattva Samantabhadra seated atop a six-tusked white elephant and surrounded by a vast retinue of attendants. "As though [Samantabhadra) were situated right before your very eyes," Chih-i tells us, "single-mindedly and with all your heart perform this repentance on behalf of all sentient beings. Generate a deep sense of shame and confess all the evils that you together with all other sentient beings have committed over innumerable kalpas down to the present day. Cut off the mentality that [desires to] continue to indulge in these sins and [vow] never again to commit any such evil from the present until the end of time."

Over the remainder of the day and night the meditator alternates between slowly circumambulating the altar reciting the Lotus Sutra and sitting in meditation. Chih-i describes the method of recitation as follows: You should make the sentences distinct and enunciate the sound [of the words] clearly. [Your recitation] should be neither too lethargic nor too hurried. Fix your attention on the text of the sutra and do not stray from the passage at hand. Mistakes are not permissible . Next you should quiet your mind and [strive to] comprehend the nature of the voice as being like an echo in an empty valley. Although the sound itself cannot be apprehended, yet the mind [is able] to illumine the meaning of every line, and the words [themselves] are spoken clearly. Visualize this sound of Dharma as spreading throughout the Dharmadhatu, [spontaneously] making offerings to the Three Jewels, giving donations to sentient beings everywhere, and causing them all to enter the realm of the single reality of the Great Vehicle."

No specific length of time or number of circumambulations is prescribed for reciting the sutra and performing walking meditation. Likewise, no limits are set on sitting in meditation. The two activities may be adjusted to suit the needs of the individual. A practitioner who is not skilled in meditative discernment may find it more beneficial (or easier)

to recite for longer periods, sitting briefly in meditation only to rest. 76 By contrast, one who finds seated meditation to be the most effective approach may sit for longer periods and take up recitation as an expedient for concentrating or stimulating the mind when he becomes anxious or exhausted. In either case, however, the meditator is not permitted to dispense with either practice entirely. Chih-i describes the method of meditative discernment for seated meditation as follows:

[The practitioner] seeks for the mind in all the various causes and conditions [that present themselves in any given instant of thought], but ultimately finds that it cannot be apprehended. Mind is insubstantial, like a dream or an illusion of magic. Being_ quiescent, it is like empty space. It is without name, without distinguishing characteristics, and it defies discrimination. At this point the practitioner does not even see the mind of birth and death; how could he yet [expect to] find a mind of nirval)a? As he does not [apprehend] any object of discernment or retain any notion of [a subjective] discerner, he does not grasp hold of anything, does not abandon anything, does not depend on anything, and does not adhere to anything. No mental activity whatsoever arises. His mind is ever quiescent, yet he does not dwell in stillness. Beyond the reach of words and speech, it is indescribable. 77 In identifying the twenty-one-day Lotus repentance as a practice

"possessing characteristics," Hui-ssu defines it as an approach that resorts primarily to phenomenal activities of recitation and ritual. He does not give us any clear indication whether or not it involves meditative discernment as well. Hui-ssu describes the approach that is "devoid of characteristics," in contrast, as primarily meditative in character. Although we cannot be sure of the exact nature of Hui-ssu's version of the twenty-one-day practice, Chih-i, in his Fa-hua san-mei ch 'an-i, explicitly incorporates the approach that is "devoid of characteristics" into the phenomenal activities of the twenty-one-day Lotus repentance. Therefore we find this practice endowed with the same two basic approaches of Principle (li) and phenomenal activities (shih) as the fang-teng repentance. In the practice that resorts to the support of phenomenal activities, the meditator simply focuses his attention on the phenomenal features of the activity at hand (such as prostrating, reciting, repenting, and so forth) and does his best to prevent his mind from drifting away from that particular object. In the practice that resorts to Principle, he continues to perform the same prescribed ritual activities but concurrently elicits the insight of the fundamental emptiness of mind and characteristics and, "turning back to discern the wellspring of mind, he maintains this [insight] from moment to moment, thereby completing the entire twenty-one days without apprehending any mental characteristics. 78

Consequently, the distinction between the twenty-one-day Lotus

repentance and the more formless course of ease and bliss (an-lo hsing) seems to become less absolute than originally suggested by Hui-ssu. Nevertheless, an important functional difference remains between the two practices that continues to reflect Hui-ssu's basic model. 79 As Chih-i explains at the end of his Fa-hua san-mei ch' an-i:

It should be known that taking the twenty-one days as the fixed period of practice and cultivating according to the six intervals of the day as described above is for the purpose of training bodhisattvas who have just begun to practice. If [such a person] has not yet been able to enter deep samadhi, then to start with he uses phenomenal methods to subdue and harmonize his mind and eliminate heavy sins that obstruct the Path. Through this his body and mind are purified and he obtains a taste of Dharma joy. If he wishes single-mindedly to cultivate constant quiescence so that he may enter profound samadhi, he must dispense with his previous practice and rely directly on the course of ease and bliss. He constantly delights in sitting in meditation and discerning the emptiness of all phenomena. He does not give rise to any internal or external transgressions, and, feeling great compassion, he sym­ pathizes with [the plight of] all sentient beings. When in his mind he can maintain this without a moment's interruption, then this is cultivating 80 samadhi.

The twenty-one-day Lotus repentance and the featureless course of ease and bliss may be seen as constituting different phases of a single course of training. In a manner similar to the one-practice and pratyut­panna samadhis, they are capable of accommodating persons of a wide range of abilities and levels of experience and, through the skillful blend of a variety of expedients, can convey them all to the deepest reaches of the bodhisattva path. If, in undertaking the twenty-one-day Lotus repentance, the meditator is truly able to penetrate the practice, then, just as the "Exhortations of Samantabhadra" chapter of the Lotus Siltra and the Kuan p' u-hsien p' u-sa hsing fa ching profess, the bodhisattva Samantabhadra and the Buddhas will appear and remove his obstructions. Chih-i says:

Through these causes and conditions [of the practice], he will come into responsive accord with samadhi. Through the power of samadhi he will see Samantabhadra and all the Buddhas of the ten directions [appear before him], massage the crown of his head, and preach Dharma for him. In a single instant of thought all [the different] accesses to Dharma will manifest in their entirety [and will be understood as being] neither identical nor differ­ 8' ent and as having no obstruction between them. In his An-to hsing i ("The Meaning of the Course of Ease and Bliss"), Hui-ssu describes a similar experience for the successful realization of the course of ease and bliss:

[On perceiving and] hearing the preaching of all the Buddhas [of the Ten Directions], the bodhisattva's mind becomes filled with great rapture, and he acquires vast spiritual powers.S itting in the midst of empty space he perceives all the Buddhas of the Ten Directions and becomes endowed with the wisdom of all the Buddhas.I n an instant of thought he totally knows the minds of all the Buddhas of the Ten Directions and also knows the mental activities of every sentient being .... In order to deliver sentient beings, his physical form and his insight [respond and take form] differently in accordance with the [varying] capacities [of beings].I n an instant of thought he manifests all [types of] forms.I n a single moment of expounding Dharma, with one sound he can create infinite voices.A t one and the same moment countless beings thereby come to attain the Way."

4· CULTIVATING SAMADHI THROUGH NEITHER WALKING NoR SITTING

As has already been mentioned, neither walking nor sitting samadhi can be divided into two sorts of practices. The first includes any ritualized or strudilred form of samadhi or repentance practice (derived from the Buddhist scripmresr that does not immediately fall into one of the three categories of constantly walking; constantly sitting; and partly walking and partly sitting. In the Mo-ho chih-kuan, Chih-i describes the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance under this heading and mentions two other practices by name: the repentance of the seven Buddhas and eight bodhisattvas (ch 'i-fo pa-p 'u-sa ch' an-fa) and the practice of cleaning latrines for eight hundred days [as taught by] the bodhisattva Akasagarbha (hsiik' ung-tsang pa-pai-jih f'u ts'e). 83 The practice known as the chin kuangming repentance (chin kuang-ming ch 'an-fa), a brief manual of which appears in the Kuo-ch' ing pai-lu, might also be included here. 84 The second form of practice described as neither walking nor sitting is the f.form approach to meditation known as sui-tzu-i ("cultivating samadhi w"'fie"rever the mind is directed at the moment").

A. The Ch'ing Kuan-yin Repentance

The ch' ing Kuan-yin repentance derives its content as well as its name from the Ch'ing Kuan-shih-yin hsiao-fu tu hai t'o-lo-ni ching ("The Sutra of the Dharai:Jf That Invokes the [Bodhisattva] Avalokitesvara to Dissipate Poison and Harm"), which was translated into Chinese by the Indian Nan-t'i during the last years of the Eastern Chin Dynasty. 85

The practice is to be undertaken in an isolated hall. The meditator rubs the floor of the sanctuary with perfumed mud and adorns the room with banners, canopies, lamps, and the usual equipment of offering. Atop an altar situated on the western side of the chamber, he enshrines the trinity of Amitabha Buddha and his two attendant bodhisattvas,

Avalokitesvara (Kuan-yin) and Mahasthamapnlpta (Ta-shih-chih). •• Finally, a mat or a low dais (to be used by the meditators) is arranged facing the altar, and new sets of robes are prepared for use in the sanctuary. As in the fang-teng and Lotus repentances, the participants must change clothes and purify themselves whenever they enter or leave the inner sanctuary. Up to ten persons may take part in the practice, which must commence on one of the six monthly uposatha days-i.e., the eighth, fourteenth, fifteenth, twenty-third, twenty-ninth, and thirtieth days of the lunar month. The Mo-ho chih-kuan does not prescribe any fixed length for this practice, but the manual contained in the Kuo-ch 'ing pai-lu specifies a period of either twenty-one or forty-nine days. The basic ritual cycle for the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance proceeds as follows:

1. Invocation of and obeisance to the Three Jewels, the seven Buddhas of antiquity, the Buddha Amitabha and the two bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta, the assembly of sages, and the three dharai).I of the siitra. 87 2. Offering of incense and flowers. 3. Seated meditation, which begins with counting the breath, followed by mindfulness of the Buddhas of the Ten Directions and the seven Buddhas of antiquity, "whose bodies of form and wondrous bodies of Reality have the appearance of empty space." Furthermore, the meditator generates thoughts of compassion for all sentient beings. 4. Invocation of the Three Jewels, invocation (ch 'eng-ming) of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara's name, and the offering of a sprig of willow and purified water to the bodhisattva. •• 5. Recitation of verses and the three dharai).I from the siitra (i.e., the dharai).I for dispersing poison, the dharai).I for eradicating [evil] karma, and the dharai).I of six-syllable phrases). 6. Confession of sins, repentance, and making of vows. •• 7. Obeisance to the Three Jewels. 8. Three or seven rounds of circumambulation, after which one person from among the group of practitioners ascends a high seat and recites the Ch 'ing Kuan-shih-yin hsiao-ju tu hai t 'o-lo-ni ching in its entirety. The others listen attentively. 90 This ritual cycle is to be performed, in its entirety, over two of the six intervals that normally make up a single day and night of worshipmorning and early evening. The remaining four intervals-noon, afternoon, midnight, and late night-are taken up with extended periods of meditation and the usual procedure for making obeisance to the Buddhas at these junctures of the day and night. The key to successful cultivation of the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance

is meditative discernment. As in the fang-teng and Lotus repentances described earlier, the practitioner strives to discern the fundamental emptiness of mind and phenomena throughout all phases and activities of the ritual. Chih-i explains: In every instant of mental activity he brings the discernment of emptiness to completion. He must practice this diligently in order to bring [the fundamental discernment of Reality and the phenomenal activities of the repentance] into mutual response. The foundation of meditative insight must not be neglected!' Each of the three dharai)I recited during the repentance has a different efficacy, depending on the type of obstruction it is designed to remove. The dharai)I for dispersing poison eliminates karma pertaining to the obstruction of endowment. The dharai)I for destroying karma removes karma pertaining to the obstruction of [evil] deeds. The dharai)I of six-syllable phrases eliminates the root propensities of the obstruction of vexation.9 2 The dharai)I of six-syllable phrases may therefore be considered the most potent of the three. Through meditating and invoking this dharai)I, the practitioner himself invokes and identifies with the compassion and omniscient powers of salvation of the bodhisattva Avalokitdvara. In a single instant he is able to remove not only his own obstructions but those. of sentient beings throughout all realms of birth and dath as well. To illustrate the miraculous function of this dharai)I, Chih-i resorts to two ways of interpreting the significance of the number six in the expression "dharai)I of six-syllable phrases."93 According to the first scheme, the number six is identified with the six realms of birth and death. Through recitation of the dharai)I, the meditator invokes six forms of Avalokitesvara, each of which manifests in and removes the obstructions peculiar to one of these six realms:

1. Avalokitesvara of Great Compassion appears in the hells. 2. Avalokitesvara of Greindness appears in the realm of the pretas (hungry ghosts). 3. Avalokitesvara Who Has the Fearlessness of a Lion appears in the animal realms. 4. Avalokitesvara Who Is a Virile Hero Among Gods and Men appears in the human realm. 5. Avalokitesvara of Great Radiance appears in the realm of the asuras (titans). 6. Avalokitesvara Who [Appears as] Great Brahma, Profound and August, manifests in the heavens of the devas.

In his secgnd illustration, Chih-i subdivides the six realms of existence into a total of twenty-five modes or states of existence. Borrowing a scheme from the Nirvlif}a Siitra, where the twenty-five states of existence are matched with the twenty-five kingly samadhis (erh-shih-wu wang san-mei), he explains that, through recitation of the dharal).l of sixsyllable phrases, the twenty-five states of existence are instantaneously transformed into the twenty-five kingly samadhis, thereby effecting total omniscience over all modes of existence. 94 In theory the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance is accessible to followers of all three vehicles of Buddhism-sravaka, pratyekabuddha, or bodhisattva-and is not the exclusive property of the Mahayana. If successfully pursued, it can convey any practitioner to his particular religious goal. A follower of the path of the sravaka will realize the fruit of arhat. One who inclines towards the path of the pratyekabuddha will become a pratyekabuddha. And, if the individual intent upon the Mahayana, the path of the bodhisattva, out of great compassion seeks the liberation of all sentient beings, His body will appear like glass, and in its finest hair pores he will perceive [the vast realms of] the Buddhas. He will acquire siirm1gamasamiidhi and come to dwell in the stage of non-retrogression. " B. Sui-tzu-i: Cultivating [Samadhi] Wherever Mind is Directed

The last of the six meditations that Chih-i includes in the four kinds of samadhi is sui-tzu-i ("cultivating samadhi wherever mind is directed"). Sui-tzu-i does not have the clearly stated basis in scripture of the other five practices. The name itself, to the best of our knowledge, appears for the first time in Hui-ssu's manual for this practice, the Suitzu-i san-mei, and may well have been coined by him. In the opening pages of that text, the Surarigamasamadhi-sutra (Shou-leng-yen san-mei ching) is mentioned, suggesting that Hui-ssu may have regarded it a source of inspiration for this practice. Moreover, the literary format of the Sui-tzu-i san-mei and certain themes repeated throughout each of its six chapters indicate that it was modeled on a specific section of this sutra. However, no technique having either the name or form of sui-tzu-i (as ited by Hui-ssu and Chih-i) is to be found in the Surarigamasamadhisfitra, and its connection with this sutra remains tenuous.

Chih-i inherited the practice of sui-tzu-i from his teacher, Hui-ssu, as a comparison of their respective works on the subject clearly corroborates. However, in addition to the original designation of sui-tzu-i, Chih-i adopts two new names for the practice: chiieh-i san-mei ("the samadhi of maintaining awareness of mind [wherever mind happens to be directed]") andjei-hsing jei-tso ("neither walking nor sitting"). In Chih-i's writings we hear no further mention of any connection with the Surarigamasamadhi-sutra. When he takes up the question of a scriptural source for sui-tzu-i, he identifies the practice as chiieh-i sanDaniel Stevenson mei and points to Kumarajiva's twenty-seven fascicle translation of the Pancavif!lsatisahasrika-prajfiliparamita-sutra ("The Sutra of the Perfection of Wisdom in Twenty-Five Thousand Lines"), where chiieh-i sanmei appears as the seventy-second member in the list of one hundrd eight great samadhis of the Mahayana. 97 The term "chiieh-i" is a Chinese translation of the Sanskrit term

"bodhym1ga," which has the long-established technical meaning of "limb or factoro f enlightenment" (as in the well-known formula of seven limbs of enlightenment). The Ta-chih-tu fun, in its exegesis of the passage in which the name "chiieh-i san-mei" appears, interprets its meaning in full conformity with the term's classical usage. "Dwelling in this samadhi," the treatise tells us, "one is able to render all samadhis devoid of outflows and bring them into response with the seven limbs of enlightenment, just as one chin of the mineral shih-han can transform one thousand chin of copper into gold."98 Chih-i is clearly aware of the technical meaning of the expression

"chiieh-i," as well as the definition of chiieh-i san-mei that is given in the Ta-chih-tu fun. However, he chooses to downplay its importance and instead takes the liberty of giving the term the peculiar Chinese reading of "maintaining awareness of mind [wherever mind is directed]." This interpretation, as will hec-ome evident shortly, is a capsule description of the practice of sui-tzu-i, much like the term sui-tzu-i itself. His decision to adopt the name "chiieh-i san-mei," therefore, seems to be no more than a thinly veiled attempt to locate a more credible scriptural basis for the practice. The third name, "fei-hsing fei-tso" ("neither walking nor sitting") is simply the title of the fourth category of the four kinds of samadhi. In the Mo-ho chih-kuan, Chih-i explains the relationship and significance of these three designations as follows:

[In the other practices of the four kinds of samadhi described] above, sitting and/or walking are always used. Here it is different from these previous cases. The name .'neither wmkHI.g nor sitting" is adopted simply to complete_ [_the set ofl four phrases. ln actuality this practicejofsui-tzu-Il runs throllgh both sitting and walking, as well as [any and] all activities. For this reason, Nan-yiieh [Hui-ssu] styled it "sui-tzu-i." As mental activity [or intent] arises one cultivates samadhi right on the spot. The Ta-p'in ching (PaiicavifJ1sati) calls it chiieh-i san-mei ("the samadhi of maintaining awareness of mind wherever mind is directed"). Wherever one's mind happens to be directed, one always [strives] to remain thoroughly aware of it. Although there are three different names for this practice, in actuality they are one and the same thing.'"

Sui-tzu-i, as this passage indicates, focuses primarily on the mind. It takes as its object the mental processes that initiate and undergird action

as a whole and tends to disregard the specific character or conventional value of the activity itself. "Whenever mental factors arise," Kuan-ting relates in the Kuan-hsin fun shu, "[the practitioner] turns back to illumine and discern [mind that initiates the action] and does not perceive any evolution of thought. He does not see a source [from which mind springs] or a culmination [to which mind and action proceed], or any place from which it comes or to which it goes." '0° From such a perspective as this, any type of activity or circumstance-religious as well as munqa,ne-can serve as an equally effective-gond for meditative discernment. Therefore, in the case of sui-tzu-i, the appellation "neither walking nor sitting" is not entirely suitable, for it does not adequately express the nature of the practice. If it is to be described in terms of the purely physical categories of the four kinds of samadhi, it would more properly be described as availing itself of any and all activities.

In order formally to indicate the comprehensiveness of sui-tzu-i, Chih-i (in the Mo-ho chih-kuan) distinguishes four broad categories of action to which sui-tzu-i may be applied: (I) any explicit form of structured meditation or religious discipline derived from the sutras, (2) wholesome activities (in a general sense), (3) unwholesome activities, and (4) activities that do ot have any particular moral valence.'0' Together these four categories comprehend all possible modes of action-actions that have a religious motive and design as well as those that are purely mundane, those that are sacred as well as those that are profane.

The actual method for discerning mind while in the midst of activity centers around what Chih-i cal!sthe four phases or marks of mental activation (ssu yiin hsin hsiafjg)((l) not-yet-thinking (wei-nien), ) being abouHo-think (yii-nien}, (3) actually thinking (cheng-nien or tang-nien), and ((4} having thought (nlen-i). There are a limitless variety of activities with \hich an individual may become involved, as well as a multitude of ways to distinguish the different psychological and physical circumstances that attend each moment of activity. However, at the heart of each instant of activity lies this pattern of four phases repeating itself over and over in endless succession. In the face of constantly changing circumstances, this pattern provides the consistency necessary for meditation. In the Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa Chih-i says:

Someone asked, "The [different] features of mental activity are quite numerous. Why do you only select these four phases or characteristics of activation?" [Chih-i] replied, "These four phases of mental activation embrace all states of mind. If one becomesoc-cupied with an evil object, [there are the phases of] not yet thinking of that evil object, being about to think of that evil object, actually thinking of that evil object, and having thought of that evil object. If one becomes occupied with a wholesome object, [there are the phases of] not yet thinking of that wholesome object, being about to think of that wholesome object, actually thinking gbout it, and having thought about it. If one becomes involved with the six sense objects, or with any of the vexations such as the three poisons, or even with the performance of any form of [external] activity such as walking, standing still, sitting, lying down, speaking, or eating, in all cases the four mental phases described earlier are always present. Moreover, even if one becomes occupied with any supramundane object, these four mental phases are always there. For this reason we only concern ourselves with these four types of mental characteristics. Taking them as the basis for discernment, there is nothing that is not comprehended by them." 102

As such, the four phases of mental activation provide the kind of consistent basis necessary for maintaining meditative discernment throughout all types of activity. The first task that confronts the practitioner in the cultivation of sui-tzu-i is to familiarize himself with these four phases and develop his meditative concentration to the point where he can clearly distinguish their presence in each moment of mental activity. When this basic field of discernment has been stabilized, he focuses his attention on the first two phases of not-yet-thinking and being aboutto-think, which mark the actual arising of thought and action. Maintaining constant awareness of the point when mental interest takes shape, the meditator subjects the two phases of not-yet-thinking and about-to-think to a rigorous analysis in terms of the four possible alternatives of logical proposition (ssu-chii; caiU$koti). In an effort to understand the basis on which the intent to act first arises, he investigates the mental condition that lies prior to it-the phase of not-yet-thinking. When the second phase of being about-to-think arises, he inquires:

	1. Does this first phase of not-yet-thinking perish? 

2. Does this phase of not-yet-thinking not perish? 3. Does not -yet -thinking both perish and not perish? 4. Does not-yet-thinking neither perish nor not perish? Next he turns his attention to the arising of mental intent proper-the emergence of the second phase of mind-about-to-think . He asks:

1. Does the phase of being about-to-think arise? 2. Does the phase of being about-to-think not arise? 3. Does being about-to-think both arise and not arise? 4. Does being about-to-think neither arise nor not arise? 103

Having exposd<tiid_systematically refuted all posible stances regarding the inception of action in the mind, the practitioner comes to grasp the baselessness of all aspects of mind and activity. The emptiness of the remaining two phases of actually thinking and having thought follows as

a matter of course, requiring no additional effort. As Chih-i describes it in his Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa: It is due solely to common misconception and delusion that [a person] distinguishes the existence of [any one of the four logical propositions] from arising-and-perishing to neither arising-and-perishing nor not arising-andperishing in these two phases of not-yet-thinking and being about-to-think or in any phenomena [produced from them].T hey are false, insubstantial, and in all cases cannot be apprehended.T hey exist only as designations. Furthermore, as designations themselves are not to be located internally, externally, or in between and ultimately have no [genuine] self-existence, then [what he takes to be a designation] is actually no designation.I f (the practitioner] does not apprehend [the existence of] the designations of the four logical possibilities of arising-and-perishing and so forth, he will not come up with [the notion of] no-designation either.B ecause he does not apprehend any designation, he does not [dwell in] the provisional.B ecause he does not posit [the idea of] no-designation, he does not [adhere to] emptiness .... Discerning [the phases of] not-yet-thinking and being about-tothink in this manner, if the practitioner does not seize upon any dualistic extremes, he will not adhere to dualistic extremes.[ Not being mired in dualistic extremes, he will not] go on to generate all the various sorts of karma.O nce he is free of dualistic extremes, free of karma that induces bondage, and free of obscurations, then the mind of true discernment will [appear] lucid and pure, like empty space. As a result of this, the genuine insight of the Middle Way will brilliantly open forth, and [the meditator] will come to illumine both of the two truths [of emptiness and provisional reality] together at the same time.T hought after instant of thought, his mind will be quiescent and extinguished, and he will effortlessly flow into the ocean of the great nirval)a.I f he discerns the [two phases of] not-yetthinking and being about-to-think in this way, then the other [mental phases of] actually thinking and having thought, as well as any and all mental phenomena [that arise on the basis of them], can categorically be known.

sui-tzu-i Viewed in light of the other practices of the four kinds of samadhi, can be seen ° to hae ·-an" ;;n;nediate affinity with the more advanced techniques for discerning mind that are advocated in the onepractice, pratyutpanna, and Lotus samadhis and in the fang-teng and ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentances. Although each of these practices has its own particular devotional orientation and ritual format, they share a common ground in their tendency to uphold meditation upon the emptiness of mind and phenomena as the most essential element in the practice. Rather than the devotional and ritual gestures themselves, it is the practitioner's ability (at any given moment) to elicit the emptiness of these· activities, together with the mind that conceives them, that ultimately -dtermines the efficacy of the practice. This in itself may well be the reason why Chih-i insists that sui-tzu-i does not obviate the highly structured and ritualistic practices "based on the siitras" but in fact is

"common to [the samadhis] both of walking and of sitting, as well as to any and all activities." In other words, sui-tzu-i constitutes that very discernment of mind that is central to the other meditations of the four kinds of samadhi.

However, there remains a key difference between sui-tzu-i and the other practices of the four kinds of samadhi. While in theory such meditations as the one-practice samadhi, pratyutpanna samadhi, and so forth might be considered to lie within the domain of sui-tzu-i, the fact that they actively promote the importance of ritual and devotional forms (whereas sui-tzu-i disregards them) sets sui-tzu-i apart as an independent and unique form of practice in its own right. In a concluding discussion of the four kinds of samadhi, Chih-i describes the relationship between sui-tzu-i and the other practices as follows: In terms of the respective methods they use, the practices of the four kinds of samadhi are distinct from one another; but in [their common use of] the discernment of Principle (li-kuan) they are the same. Basically the methods found in the other three types of practice [e .g., constantly walking, constantly sitting, partly walking and partly sitting] make liberal use of techniques for assisting the path. They also tend to pose certain obstructions to the path. As sui-tzu-i makes little use of [these kinds of] methods [for assisting the path], it produces this kind of phenomenon to a lesser degree. If you merely understand [a practice] in terms of the assistance to the path that these methods [are designed to] afford, then you will never be able to penetrate beyond the phenomenal features [of the practice]. If you understand the discernment of Principle, there will be no phenomenal feature that you will not penetrate. On the other hand, if you do not grasp the basic import of the discernment of Principle, then even the assistance to the path [to be gained by relying on] these phenomenal features will not be achieved. However, once you have grasped the basic idea behind the discernment of Principle, you will be able to realize the samadhis associated with these phenomenal features at will. If you cultivate the path by resorting primarily to these phenomenal practices, then, when you enter the sanctuary [for isolated retreat], you will be able to apply yourself effectively; but when you come out, you will not be able to [continue to do so]. In the case of sui-tzu-i, however, there is no interruption. Phenomenal methods belong to three [of the four kinds of samadhi]. Discernment of Principle is common to all four.'"

What Chih is referring to when he uses the expression "phenomenal features" or "methods that assist the path" are those features of ritual format and religious cult that give the different meditations of the four kinds of samadhi their distinct character-such elements as mindfulness of Buddha and the rigorous discipline of ninety days of sitting or walking of the one-practice and pratyutpanna samadhis; recitation of the Lotus Sutra, repentance of the six senses, and visualization of Samantabhadra of the Lotus samadhi; and the elaborate rituals of offering, repentance,

and recitation of darai)I of the fang-teng and ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentances. Each practice has its particula justification, its scriptural and devotional orie-ntailo-rl,-its prescriptions, and its claims to efficacy. As expedient approaches to Dharma, they can help the practitioner to remove his obstructions and enter the path. However, the objects they venerate, the religious emotions they evoke, and the images and goals they set up are not in themselves ultimate, but are mere conventions designed for expedient purposes. In this sense they pose the danger of seducing the practitioner deeper into delusion and attachment by encouraging him to cling to these features as though they were real and constituted a legitimate end in their own right. As such, on certain levels they actually obstruct the Way.

The decisive factor as to whether these practices bring liberation or further bondage ultimately lies in the practitioner's ability to utilize them in a way that enables him to penetrate beyond their stated value and meaning-to critique them in light of the emptiness of both mind and phenomena, ultimately reconciling them with the Dharmadhatu. In other words, the success of these techniques finally comes down to the essential discernment of mind (or Principle) that is identified with sui-tzu-i.

This, of course, creates a certain amount of tension and ambiguity between sui-tzu-i and the other practices of the four kinds of samadhi. If the religious claims and ritual specifications of the one-practice samadhi, pratyutpanna samadhi, and so forth are simply expedients-expedients that have no real inherent value other than serving the end of the discernment of Principle-then why bother to adhere to them? W hyta_k:e..S.lcl h a roun<:fa_g_y_!_a_p_pg_ach and run the risk ofbeing w.aylaicLb them when one can turn to suitzuldlrecUyT - Chih-i wa_welLaware of the seductive appeal ofsui-tzu-i and its potential, when misconstrued, for eclipsing other forms of Buddhist faith and practice. For this reason he consciously refrains from extolling the virtues of this approach in the Mo-ho chih-kuan. He embarks, instead, on a lengthy discourse in which he cautions against its abuse, citing examples of dhyana masters who ruined both themselves and their disciples by seizing upon this practice as supreme and teaching it indiscriminately to others. "The six defiling obscurations [that we consider to be] the antithesis of the Way are themselves the very path of liberation," Chih-i tells us. "But, when individuals whose [spirituaJ] capacities are dull and obscurations heavy hear these words, they are immediately swampea:TCone-wei-e to go on to give them specific encouragement to practice this teaching, their misunderstanding of its actual meaning would become even more severe."'""

Sui-tzu-f, (lSuc_h._.9-!l_()!Jl..P!<t_<:_ti(;_t!JO_be t'!u_ght to juH anyone; nor was it ever intended to devalue or wholly replace other forms of Buddhist discipline. Although in theory it disavow-ecfeinploying expedients or any subsidiary religious goals or beliefs, its use was subject to certain strict practical conditions. Primarily this approach was reserved for those individuals who could measure up to it-persons whose inherent spiritual endowments were especially keen or who, through previous training, had reached an advanced stage of practice where they could effectively dispense with the coarser forms of discipline. Chih-i makes this point forcefully in both his Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa and his Mo-ho chih-kuan by carefully circumscribing the discernment of sui-tzu-i proper with various preliminary conditions that the meditator must fulfill before he is ready to devote himself to this more formless approach. The Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa describes the following preparatory disciplines leading up to the full practice of sui-tzu-i:

I. Setting forth the vow

2. Taming the mind with the Six Perfections

3. Eliciting the mental phases

4. General Discernment of mind (while seated)

5. Specific discernment amidst all activivies'"'

The vow to save all sentient beings and strive for the perfect enlightenment of a Buddha is a standard pledge that generally marks the initial step on the Mahayana path. That Chih-i would make it the foundation of sui-tzu-i is not at all unusual. However, as it is applied within the specific context of this practice, the initial vow has a more immediate function than a generalized profession of commitment to the Mahayana faith. Through its lack of emphasis on devotional fervor and ascetic discipline, sui-tzu-i seems, on the surface, to be rather passive and easygoing. It does not pose the sort of challenge or summon the kind zeal that we find in the other more stringent practices of the four kinds of samadhi. In order to avoid slipping into a false or complacent understanding .of the practice (a problem that can develop quite easily when all that one is required to do is attend to the activity at hand), the mediator must main­tain a keen sense of self-integrity and constantly remind himself of the fundamentill premises and alms of sui-tzu-i. "At this point," Chi h-i tells us in the Chiieh-i san-meihsing-fa, "[the practitioner's] mind is like diamond. With absolute decisivenesss he holds the conviction that all phenomena are utterly empty and quiescent; yet he does not abandon any of the countess sentient beings. On [their] behalf he undertakes the myriad activities."'

With his determination firmly established, the practitioner turns his attention to subduing the coarse emotional reactions and negative states of mind that obscure more forms of meditative insight. Chih-i summarizes these negative qualities by a formula known as the six coverings or obscurations: (I) craving and attachment, (2) inability to conform to the prohibitions of the precepts, (3) anger and hatred, (4) laziness and habit-

ual lassitude, (5) scattere9 and confused mind, and (6) lack of awareness and stupidity. Each of these faults is eliminated by cultivating its counterpart among the Six Perfections: (1) giving, (2) discipline, (3) patience or endurance, (4) zeal, (5) meditative concentration, and (6) insight. 109 As he begins to loosen the hold of his habitual entanglements and comes into closer and closer conformity with the positive qualities described by the Six Perfections, the practitioner's mind and feelings undergo a substantial change in quality. The view of intrinsic emptiness, purity, and quiescence that was originally just a matter of faith begins to become an actuality. "If the practitioner understands that mind and the myriad phenomena are all nonexistent, neither arise nor perish, and are [actually] quiescent and pure, and he is able to apply the expedients of the Six Perfections skillfully to subdue his own deluded and false mind," Chih-i explains, "then, once the deluded mind comes to rest, samadhi will appear of its own accord." 110

In the Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, Chih-i summarizes the role of the Six Perfections as follows:

If the practitioner does not cultivate these six qualities of mental purity that function as approaches to the Way, then his mind will not be fit for cultivat­ ing deep samadhi. Therefore, if you wish to practice the samadhi of main­taining awareness of mind wherever it is directed at the moment (chiieh-i san-mei), you must thoroughly verse yourself in the practice of the Six Perfections as described above. These Six Perfections embrace all expedients. Once you are able to apply them skillfully to subdue the six obscured and coarse states of mind and can render the mind supple and tame, only then will you be able to investigate and discern with a subtle mind and finally enter the door of true discernment. These are known as the preliminary expedients for cultivating truly deep samadhi. '

The Six Perfections constitut the ge!leral expedients for the practice of sui-tzu-i, but they alone are not sufficient to prepare the practitioner for directly taking up the discernment of mind amidst all activities. Even though he may well have removed his coarser obstructions, he must still strive to develop the meditative skills necessary to penetrate the "wellspring of mind." At first this is accomplished primarily through the practice of seated meditation, the practice that Chih-i refers to as the "general discernment." 1 11 The meditator begins by developing a firm grasp of the meditative object-the four phases of mental activation-and training himself to apply the discernment of the four alternatives of logical proposition. After he has achieved an initial degree of insight into the emptiness of mind and phenomena, he may then begin to apply this awareness to other activities. At first he continues to bolster this practice with a regular regimen of seated meditation; but "once he knows that mind and all forms of mental consciousness do not exist and cannot be apprehended, he should [extend this] and carefully discern both the internal and external aspects of mind according to whatever activity he finds himself involved in." 113 As his powers of meditation develop, he may reduce his dependence on sitting, until finally his discernment of mind flows continuously without interruption. If the practice is successful, the meditator will attain silrm1ga_masamii_rjfJi. Hui-ssu, in his text of Sui-tzu-i san-mei, gives the following vivid description:

By discerning that the mind that is not-yet-thinking or about-to-think is pure in its essential self-nature and free of any change or transformation, the practitioner acquires the unshakable samadhi, manifests omniscient wisdom, and comes to comprehend the totality of Buddha Dharma. [He realizes that] from the stage of first truly putting forth the thought [of enlightenment] up to the final attainment of the full fruit of Buddhahood, [mind] has never once undergone any change. Nor does [its spiritual development] proceed from one stage to another [through a series of successive stages of development]. In an instant of thought he knows the affairs of the three periods of time in their entirety. The mental dispositions of both sages and ordinary beings, lands, and world realms over numbers of aeons both far and near, the afflictions of sentient beings as well as differences in their respective spiritual capacities-in a flash he knows them all exhaustively. This is the samadhi of universal awareness. It is also termed the samadhi of illuminti;-Ttirou-gn tfie-supernatural powers of this samadhi, he is able to manifest physical forms throughout the realms of the Ten Directions, responding differently according to each respective stimulus. All the while he remains perfectly lucid and experiences no sense of transformation [on his own part]. It is the same for the voice. At this point it is known as the power of siirmigamasamadhi, [the practice of] cultivating samadhi wherever mind is directed having been perfected to the full. 114

III. Conclusions

This chapter has sought to provide a glimpse of early T'ien-t'ai religious training not simply as it was expressed in theory, but also as it was actually instituted among the followers of Chi h-i and Hui-ssu. Central to this picture is the set group of practices identified as the four kinds of samadhi-one-practice samadhi, pratyutpanna samadhi, Lotus samadhi, Sui-tzu-i, fang-teng repentance, and ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance. Having described their contents, as well as the principles governing their application, what general statements can we make about the nature of T'ien-t'ai meditation as a whole? First, we find that, despite their apparent diversity, the four kinds of samadhi are structured according to a common set of principles. At th_eir core stands the fundamental discernment of the emptiness of mind and

phenomena, the discernment of Principle (/i-kuan). This practice is responsible for their ultimate success, and to this practice all other practices, consequently, must aspire. However, to effectuate this discernment, the practitioner must meet certain practical conditions. The fulfillment of these conditions is enhanced by the rich variety of "techniques for assisting the path" that carefully circumscribe the core discernment of mind. The view of practice that Chih-i presents is a holistic one. The various disciplines-ranging frorri basic precepts, worship, ritual, diet, sleep, and so forth to more subtle forms of mental discipline and meditative discernment-are fundamentally inseparable. Effective practice on the part of the individual depends on his understanding of the principles that govern the meditative path as well as on his ability to assess and apply the measures appropriate to his situation. Second, in his tendency to reduce and unify different meditative practices in terms of underlying principles that govern meditation as a whole, Chih-i does not thereby obviate the multiplicity of religious disciplines taught in the Buddhist scriptures or handed down within the tradition. On the contrary, his attitude is highly eclectic. A diversity of available meditative practices ensures that the individual practitioner may deal more adequately with the vicissitudes of his own practice. It also makes the benefits of Buddhist teaching and practice as a whole available to a much wider audience, allowing persons of different abilities and spiritual inclinations to choose the approach best suited to them. Practically speaking, we see this attitude at work in the extraordinary diversity of disciplines made available through the four kinds of samadhi themselves. Along more theoretical lines, Chih-i's views may be summarized by the following exchange cited from his concluding discussion of the four kinds of samadhi in Mo-ho chih-kuan:

Someone asked: "In [applying] the true discernment of the Middle Way, through the very act of unifying one's mind, [both] the practice and its function are complete. What need is there to make so many [distinctions] such as the four kinds of samadhi, the application of [discernment] to good and evil [circumstances], or [meditating] amidst the twelve [different forms of] activity? When the water is muddy, the pearl is concealed. When the wind blows heavily, waves beat on the surface. What use could [such concerns] have for realizing lucidity and calm?" Chih-i replied: "[Your attitude] is analogous to a poor person who, upon obtaining a little advantage, con­siders it sufficient and doesn't care to do even better. If you use only one form of mental discernment, what happens when you are confronted with all sorts of [different] mental states? In such a case you will be at a loss in your own practice. If you [consider] trying to use [this one method] to train others, the spiritual endowments of others are all different from one another. One person's afflictions are in themselves infinite, how much more so [the afflictions of] many people! [Let us say] there is a master of medi-

cines who gathers all varieties of medicines to remove all the different types of illness. Then a person [comes along] who suffers from one particular illness and needs one particular medicine to cure that illness and thinks it strange that the doctor should carry so many other [useless] medicines [apart from the particular one he requires]. Your question is like this."'"

Notes

I. The Kuo-ch 'ing pai-lu (T# 1934) was begun by Chih-i's disciple Chih-chi and taken over and completed by Kuan-ting when Chih-chi passed away. The work consists of miscellaneous pieces of correspondence, short treatises, inscriptions, and so forth, totaling 104 entries in all. They range in date from relatively early in Chih-i's career (around the time that he first entered Mt. T'ien-t'ai) to approximately a decade after his death. Chih-i's main temple on Mt. T'ien-t'ai (actually located on Fo-lung Peak) was known as Hsiu-ch'an ssu. Permission and funds for building a larger complex at the foot of the mountain were received just before his death, and construction was finally completed in 601. The new name, Kuo-ch'ing ssu, was not attached to the monastery until 605. The Li chih-fa is the first entry in the Kuo-ch 'ing pai-lu (T46. 793b-794a). For a discussion of its contents and date, see Sat5 Tetsuei, Tendai daishi no kenkyu (Kyoto: Hyakkein, 1961), pp. 20, 62; Ikeda Rozan, Kokusei Hyakuroku no kenkyu (Tokyo: Daizo shuppan, 1982), pp. 135-142; and Shioiri Ry6d6, "Shoki Tendaizan no ky6danteki seikaku;' Nihon Bukkyo Gakkai, ed., Bukkyo kyodan no sho­mondai (Kyoto: Heirakuji shoten, 1974), pp. 133-149.

2. It is not clear at exactly what time these periods of meditation were held and for how long they lasted. Ikeda Rozan suggests that they might have been similar to the four periods of meditation of early evening, late night, mid morning, and late afternoon stipulated in Southern Sung and later Japanese Ch'an/Zen monastic codes (Kokusei Hyakuroku no kenkyu, p. 139). Martin Colcutt notes that such periods of meditation (in Zen monasteries) were one hour in length (see Five Mountains: T he Rinzai Zen Monastic Institution in Medieval Japan [[[Cambridge]]: Harvard University Press, 1981], p. 143). Chang Sheng-yen, in a recent conversation, has suggested that two periods of meditation may have been held over the two watches of the early night, and the other two periods over the two watches of the late night (a total of approximately eight hours). The two watches of time around midnight (comprising four hours) were used for rest, as this particular part of the night was considered unsuitable for meditation. At the end of Hui-ssu's biography in the Hsii kao-seng-chuan (hereafter HKSC), Tao-hsiian remarks that in Hui-ssu's community the monks meditated at night and occupied their days primarily with study (T50.564a2). Curiously, the "Perfection of Dhyana " chapter of the Ta-chih-tu-lun (one that had a major impact on the system of meditation espoused by Hui-ssu and Chih-i) contains a passage stating that meditation is to be practiced during the two intervals of early night and late night (T25.185c28-9). This may well have been an established Indian or Central Asian model later adopted by Hui-ssu and Chih-i.

. Manuals of recitation for the ceremonies of obeisance held at the six intervals are included as the second and third entries in the Kuo-ch 'ing pai-lu:

Ching-li-fa (T46. 794a-795a) and P'u-li-fa (T46. 795a-b). The former draws its material primarily from the i-hsing, ch 'u-yeh, and fen-pieh kung-teh chapters of the Shih-chu pi-p'o-sha fun (T26.40c-49b). The later draws mainly upon the Avatamsaka Stltra.
4. Kuo-ch' ing pai-lu (hereafter abbreviated KCPL), T46.7 94a5.
5. KCPL, T46.794a13-17.
6. KCPL, T46.793c21.
7. KCPL, entry 7, Shun Chih-shih-jen, T46.798c21-799a7. Also see Ikeda, Kokusei Hyakuroku no kenkyu, p. 208, n. 13.
8. Colcutt, Five Mountains, pp. 236-243.
9. KCPL, T46.793cl8-20.
10. Etienne Lamotte, La Concentration de Ia Marche Heroique (Surmigamasamlidhi Sutra) (Brussels: Institut Belges des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1975), p. 31.
II. Miao-fa lien-hua ching, T9.3a3-4.
12. Ta-chih-tu-lun (hereafter TCTL), T# 1509, location unclear.

13. Mo-ho chih-kuan (herafter M HCK), T46.11a 22-28. The simile of raw milk and ghee originally comes from the Shih-tzu-hu p 'u-sa chapter of the Nirvlif)a Sutra (TI2.530b- 532a). Raw milk signifies the human potential for enlightenment. Heating and stirring the raw milk (through practice) ultimately produces the finest essence of ghee, which represents the most profound realization.
14. Such references may be found in Chih-i's MHCK (T46.lla- 21b), Fa-hua hsiian-i (D3.806c), and Ssu chiao i (T46.76lc) as well as Kuan-ting's Ssu nien-ch'u (T46.574b-c) and Kuan-hsin tun shu (hereafter KHLS) (T46.600b-603c).

15. Hui-ssu composed manuals for two of these practices-Sui-tzu-i san-mei
(ZZ2/3/4) for the practice of sui-tzu-i and Fa-hua ching an-to hsing i (T# 1926) for the Lotus samadhi. The text of Sui-tzu-i san-mei, in its opening lines, mentions mindfulness of Buddha samadhi (nien-fo san-mei), pratyutpanna samadhi, Lotus samadhi, and sui-tzu-i as especially effective techniques that should be practiced if one wishes "speedily to enter the stage of [the conviction of full] bodhisattvahood and acquire the wisdom of a Buddha" (ZZ2/3/4.344a). Along with the practices just mentioned, fang-teng and ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentances appear in biographies of several of Huissu's more prominent disciples.
16. HKSC, T50.563cl9-21. Sekiguchi Shindai suggests that the mindfulness of Buddha samadhi (nien-fo san-mei) that appears here is an alternate name for one-practice samadhi (i-hsing san-mei), because mindfulness of Buddha is a major aspect of this practice (see Tendai shikan no kenkyu [[[Tokyo]]: Iw anami shoten, 1969], p, 150). More substantial proof of this can be found in Chih-i's Shih ch 'an po-to-mi tz 'u-ti fa-men, where nien-fo san-mei is identified with the Wen-shu-shih-li suo shuo po-jo po-to-mi ching, which is the very siitra from which one-practice samadhi itself derives (T46.538b2122).
17. HKSC, T50.557a29-b2.
 
18. This event is recorded in Sui t'ien-t'ai chih-che ta-shih pieh chuan (T50.191c22-192al), in Kuan-ting's preface to the MHCK (T46.1bl4-15), and in the biography of Chih -i in HKSC (T50.564bl5-20).
19. These are the Fa-hua san-mei ch'an-i (T46.949b) and Fang-teng san-mei hsing-fa (T46.943a). For a more detailed discussion of these and other manuals by Chih-i, see below.

20. Chih-i, Shih ch 'an po-lo-mi tz'u-ti fa-men, T# 1916. See especially T46.479b3-7,481all-14,481b26-cl2,485c-487a,499al2-15,etc.
21. Chih-i' s teaching career can be divided into roughly two major periods. The years 568-575, when he was in Chin-ling, and 575-585, when he was on T'ien-t'ai, generally represent his early period. The remaining years of his life, i.e., from 585 until his death in 597, represent his later period. In certain respects,t he decade on Mt. T'ien-t'ai (575-585) can be seen as a tranisitional period. This scheme of periodization is based primarily on the thesis that Chih -i's thought underwent an important transformation while he was on Mt. T'ien-t'ai, the results of which are to be seen in new forms of doctrinal expression that became characteristic of his later works. For a resume and assessment of various references in Chih-i's works that have a bearing on the formation of the scheme of four kinds of samadhi, see Sato Tetsuei,

"Tendai daishi ni okeru shishu zammai no keisei katei," IBK, vol. 12, no. 2 (1964), pp. 51-65; Shioiri Ryodo, "Shishu zammai ni atsukawareta Chigi sanbo," IBK, vol. 8, no. 2 (1960), p. 269; and Sekiguchi Shindai, Tendai shikan no kenkyu, pp. 148-154.
22. The three approaches to calming and discernment are: (I) the gradual and successive calming and discernment, (2) the sudden and complete calming and discernment, and (3) the unspecified calming and discernment. Together they outline (in theory) three basic approaches to meditative practice. The ten objects or spheres of discernment present a digest of the different conditions, phenomena, or states of mind that may confront the practitioner in the course of his practice (and therefore constitute a range of possible fields of discernment). The ten modes of discernment outline basic principles governing the internal dynamics of meditative discernment itself and supply a rationale by which the meditator can logically assess and take appropriate measures to deal with whatever phenomena or situation may confront him at the moment. Along with the formula mentioned above, we should include the well-known twenty-five preliminary expedients (erh-shihwu fang-pien), which outline certain preliminary physical and mental conditions that the meditator must fulfill before he can begin to take up meditation effectively. However, this scheme already appears fully developed in Chih-i's earliest works and must be distinguished from those that were devised late in his career.

23. Sui t 'ien-t' ai chih-che Ia-shih pieh chuan, T50.196b 15-17.
24. The Fang-/eng san-mei hsing-fa ( T#1 940) is the oldest among these three works, dating from the first years of Chih-i's sojourn in Chin-ling (568575). Fa-hua san-mei ch 'an-i (T#I941) is thought to date from slightly later, possibly from the period when Chih-i moved to T'ien-t'ai. Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa (otherwise listed in TaishO daizokyo as Shih Mo-ho po-jo po-lo-mi ching chiieh-i san-mei, T# 1922), although it is probably later than the Fahua san-mei ch' an-i, also seems to have been written at about the same time. For further discussion of the dating of these works, see SatO, Tendai daishi no kenkya, pp. 149,1 88,219.

25. KCPL, T46.795b-8c. This second manual for jang-teng repentance is clearly later than the Fang-teng san-mei hsing-fa but earlier than the
description of the practice that appears in MHCK or KHLS. The chin kuang-ming repentance is not mentioned in any of Chih-i's other works, nor is it generally listed among the four kinds of samadhi. The practice itself is
based upon and focuses on the recitation of the Suvarnaprabhiisottamasutra (Chin kuang-ming ching).

26. Tao-hsiian, Ta-t'ang nei-tien /u, T55.284b. The possibility that the two fascicle Ch 'ing Kuan-yin hsing-fa mentioned in this catalog is another, older manual for the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance is corroborated by a reference to an "earlier ( chiu) manual for repentance previously devised on the basis of this sutra" in Kuan-ting's Ch 'ing Kuan-yin ching shu (n9.973a). For further discussion of this question, see Sato, Tendai daishi no kenkyu, pp. 504509. Tao-hsiian's catalog also attributes a "Method for the Practice of Chin Kuang-ming" (Chin Kuang-ming hsing-fa) to Kuan-ting.
27. Hui-ssu, Sui-tzu-i san-mei, ZZ2131 4; Fa-hua ching an-/a hsing i, T46.697c. Both works most likely date from the period of Hui-ssu's stay on Mt. Ta-su
(ca. 555-568). As the An-/a hsing i cites the Sui-tzu-i san-mei, it is clear that Sui-tzu-i san-mei is the earlier work.
28. A second lengthy description of the four kinds of samadhi nearly identical to that of the MHCK in both form and content, appears in Kuan-ting's KHLS. SatO Tetsuei has suggested that this version in the KHLS may have been taken, almost verbatim, from an earlier edition of the MHCK known by the title Yiian-tun chih-kuan. Therefore, even though the commentary is by Kuan-ting, the description of the four kinds of samadhi itself may be closer to Chih-i's original lecture, before it was once again edited (and in some instances further supplemented) by Kuan-ting some years later. See Sa tO, Tendai daishi no kenkyu, pp. 382-400.

29. TCTL, T25.40ib20-25. The Chinese name for this samadhi is commonly read i-hsing san-mei, but in light of the original Sanskrit term vyuha, the second character should perhaps be read as hang, meaning "arrangement" or "array." Despite the original Sanskrit meaning, Chinese monks, since the time of its translation, seem to have interpreted the character to mean hsing, or "practice, activity" and not hang. The T'ang period T'ien-t'ai master Chan-jan carries this particular interpretation to its extreme by specifically defining the "practice" of one-practice samadhi solely in terms of the activity of constant sitting, rather than accepting its more abstract meaning of meditating on oneself as being contemporaneous with the "single" Dharmadhatu ( Chih-kuan ju-hsing chuan-hung-chiieh, T46.182b3-6.)
30. T#232. This scripture was translated by the monk Mandrasena during the Liang period. The particular passage on which Chih-i bases his twofold description of the practice ( T8. 731 a26-b8) is translated in the chapter in this volume by David Chappell.
The notion of constant sitting, the ninety-day period of practice, and the details of (I) the expedient practice of repentance, (2) generating a sense of shame, (3) invoking the Buddha's name, and (4) entrusting him with one's fate are all taken from the Wen-shu-shih-li wen ching (Tl4.506c507b ), which was translated by the monk Sanghapala in 518. The KH LS description of one-practice samadhi cites the Wen-shu shuo ching as a source for this practice, but does not mention the Wen-shu wenching. Instead, the practices of reciting the Buddha's name and repenting are said to be common to any number of Buddhist sutras, no source being named in particular. This has led Sato Tetsuei to the conclusion that the material from the Wenshu wen ching may not have appeared in the earlier editions of the MHCK, but was added later by Kuan-ting (Tendai daishi no kenkyu, pp. 383-385). For a thorough study of the basic scriptural sources for the description of one-practice samadhi in the MHCK, see Ono Eijin, "Shishu zammai no
tenk yo to sono kosatsu," Zen kenkyusho kiyo, nos. 6 & 7 (1976), p. 271.

31. MI-ICK, T46.llb21-23.
Daniel Stevenson
32. MHCK,T 46.llc15-21.
33. MHCK, T46.llbll-12.
34. MHCK,T 46.llbl2-13.
35. MHCK, T46.llbl3-16. Chih-i's description of how the voice is formed appears to derive originally from fascicle six of the TCTL (T25.103a-b). Both this treatise and Chan-jan's commentary to MHCK give the seven spots as the crown, teeth, lips, gums, tongue, throat, and chest (Chih-kuan fu-hsing ch 'uan-hung-chiieh, T46.183a).
36. Kuan-ting, KHLS, T46.600c3-4.
37. MHCK,T46.11c2-12.
38. Wen-shu wen ching, Tl4.506c-507a.
39. MHCK, T46.llbl9-20.

40. For an excellent summary discussion of this samadhi and its significance in various Mahayana treatises (especially the TCTL), see Etienne Lamotte, Le Traiu! de Ia Grande Vertue de Sagesse, vol. 5 (Louvain: Universite de Louvain, 1980), pp. 2263-2272.
41. Two versions of this sutra are attributed to Lokakema, one in three fascicles (T#417) and one in one fascicle (T#418). It has been suggested that the longer version may have been translated by Dharmaraka, but this seems untenable, as the two texts are too similar in content to have been translated by different people. Chih-i appears to have relied on the three fascicle version. Tokiwa Daijo has shown that the translation was not done by Lokakema alone but in collaboration with Chu Shuo-fo. Various early catalogs give the date as A.D. 179. See Tokiwa Daijo, Yakukyo soroku (repr. ed., Tokyo: Kokusho kankyokai, 1973), pp. 492-498, 523-524.
42. T# 1521. T he Pi-p 'o-sha tun is not a line by line exegesis of the Dasabhumika-siltra but consists of root verses, composed on the basis of the sutra, and prose commentary on the verses. T he work (or translation) itself is incomplete, covering only the first two of the ten bhilmi. Takemura Shoho has suggested that the prose commentary of the text may have been based on the recitation and interpretation of Buddhayeshe, whom Kumarajiva sought out in order to gain a clearer understanding of the meaning of the system of ten bhumi and to facilitate his translation of the Dasabhumikasiltra itself. See Takemura Shoho, Jujubibasharon no kenkyil (Kyoto: Hyakkaen, 1979), pp. 15-16, 21-22. Discussion of the Pratyutpannasamadhi-siltra and its practice takes up the greater part of six chapters of the Shih-chu pi-p'o-sha tun (T26.68c7-88cl8).

43. Lamotte, Le TraiU! de Ia Grande Vertue de Sagesse, vol. 5, pp. 2266-2272.
44. T hese stipulations are based on the third chapter of three fascicle version of the Pratyutpannasamadhi-siltra and are known as the "four affairs" (ssu shih). See Tl3.906a-b.
45. The Fang-teng san-mei hsing-fa (T46.944a) calls for the same arrangement of personnel for the fang-teng repentance as is described here. Furthermore, these three type of supportive personnel are defined in the discussion of the
"spiritual friend" (shan-chih-shih) that appears as one of the entries in the MHCK's treatment of the twenty-five preliminary expedients. Here the companion in the practice (t'ung-hsing) is stated to be a necessary feature of the pratyutpanna samadhi and the fang-teng repentance, but not of sui-tzu-i or an-lo hsing. Presumably such a companion was not needed in these latter two practices because of their less restrictive and physically demanding nature. No mention is made of the other practices of the four kinds of sam ad hi.

46. T46.12b23-29.
47. Chih-i refers to this aspect of the practice as "mindfulness in accordance with or on the basis of distinguishing characteristics" (ju hsiang nien). Paraphrasing the Pan-chou san-mei ching (T13.905c), he makes the interesting point that this form of discernment is akin to "a jewel being reflected in glass when it is placed in close proximity to it, or like a bhiku visualizing (kuan) bones [in the white bone meditation on impurity), where the white bones give off radiant light. [In the case of the glass and the gem] there is no appropriating [of the image of the gem on the part of the glass), and [in the
case of the bones] the bones do not really exist. They are mentally produced" (T46.12c15-18).
48. T46.12c20-24. This passage is abstracted almost verbatim from a discussion in the Pan-chou san-mei ching (T13.906al-ll). Due to its ambiguities, I have consulted KHLS and a Sui period translation of the siitra (Ta fang-leng la-chi-ching hsien-hu fen, T13.877b-c) as well as TCTL (T25.276b8-13) (where this passage appears) to help clarify its meaning.
49. These three levels of mindfulness of Buddha are based on chapters nineteen (nien-fo p'in) through twenty-five (chu nien-fo san-mei p'in) of the Shihchu pi-p'o-sha fun (726.68-88).
50. MHCK, T46.13a5-6; Shih-chu pi-p 'o-sha fun, T26.86a.
51. MHCK, T46.12a21-22; Pan-chou san-mei ching, T13.905cl6- 17.
52. MHCK, T46.12b22-23.
53. MHCK, T46.12a24-25.

54. T# 1339. Tokiwa Daijo notes that the four-fascicle version of this siitra, translated by Fa-chung, is also listed in various early catalogs as having the alternate title Ta fang-leng l'an-ch 'ih (or I 'an-l'eh) I 'o-/o-ni ching. An earlier translation of a Ta fang-leng I 'o-/o-ni ching in one fascicle dating from between 291 and 299 is mentioned in certain early catalogs as well, but whether it represented an earlier recension of the work is unknown (see Yakukyo Soroku, pp. 900 and 728).
55. The three manuals of the fang-leng repentance are in close agreement regarding the general procedure of the practice. However, we will rely primarily on the Fang-leng san-mei hsing-fa (T46.943a), which offers the most detailed account of the preliminary ritual preparations.
56. The exact identity of these thirty-four divinities is not clear. However, the KCPL manual of Fang-leng ch'an-fa (T46.797b) mentions ten Buddhas (of the Ten Directions), the "vaipulya mother and father of the Mo-ho I 'anch 'ih I 'o-/o-ni," the ten Dharma princes, and the twelve dream kings-totaling thirty-four deities. Subhuti and other Arhats are also worshipped in the ceremony, but it is possible that they were not enshrined.
57. All three manuals agree that seven days is a minimum length for the repentance. The Fang-leng san-mei hsing-fa, on the basis of the Fang-leng I 'a-toni ching itself, lists, in addition to a period of seven days, periods of eightyseven, ninety-seven, forty-seven, and sixty-seven days, based, according to the siitra, on whether the practitioner was a full bhiku. a full bhikuni, a sramana, a sramanerika, or a holder of the bodhisattva precepts, respectively. Each type of practitioner was also to use a different dharai)L The later manuals, however, do not mention such distinctions at all and simply state that the length of the practice may be extended as one desires.
58. Fang-leng ch 'an-fa, T46. 797a28-29.

59. This basic procedure is found in all three manuals of fang-I eng repentance.
60. Fang-leng san-mei hsing-fa, T46.9 45c8-16.
Daniel Stevenson
61. This discussion of the nature of the dharal)f appears only in MHCK (T46.13b22-23) and KHLS (T46.602b24-25).
62. TCTL T25 .95cl0-16. This same passage is cited (and the TCTL acknowledged as the source) in Chih-i's Fa-chieh tz'u-ti ch 'u men, T46.692a.
63. Kuan-ting, Ch'ing Kuan-yin ching shu, D9.974a2-5.
64. Although the obstruction [of root] vexation (fan-nao chang) is none other than the klesiivarana, in this context it should not be understood in its better known Yogacara sense as being distinct from jfieyiivarana. Chih-i is well aware of these two terms (as other works show), but in this case we might properly understandfan-nao chang to cover both meanings. This discussion of the three obstructions appears in MHCK (T46.13c), KHLS (T46.602c), and KCPL, Fang-teng ch 'an-fa (T46. 798b).
65. The Fang-teng san-mei hsing-fa also includes explicit instructions for walking meditation (T46.945c8-16) and seated meditation ( T46.945c1 7 -946a6). In the latter, the practitioner first calms and collects his mind through meditating on the breath and then discerns "the true suchness that is the nature of mind, the Dharmadhatu that is itself the nature of mind."
66. Fang-teng san-mei hsing-fa, T46.945al-6.

67. MHCK, T46.13c22-23; KHLS, T46.602c. This scheme does not appear in the KCPL, Fang-teng ch 'an-fa.
68. MHCK, T46.13c25-26; KHLS, T46.602c. This illustration of s repentance of the obstruction of vexation is taken from the siitra itself.
69. Chih-i relies on Kumarajfva's translation of the Lotus Siltra (Miao-fa lienhua ching; SaddharmapundarTka Sfitra), T#261. The term fa-hua san-mei, "Lotus samadhi," appears only three times in the Miao-fa lien-hua ching, and in each case it is merely included in a list along with various other samadhis. No description or definition of its content is given. Its content seems to have been supplied entirely by Hui-ssu and Chih-i. The principal passage in the "Exhortations of Samantabhadra " chapter of the Lotus Sutra, on which this twenty-one day repentance is based, reads:
If in the latter age, in the last five hundred years, in the midst of a muddied and evil age, a bhiku or a bhikul)f, an upasaka or an upasika, who keeps, reads and recites, and copies, wishes to cultivate and practice this Scripture of the Dharma Blossom, then for three weeks he must single-mindedly persevere with vigor. When he has fulfilled three weeks, I (Samantabhadra), mounted on my white elephant with six tusks, will together with incalculable bodhisattvas personally circumambulate him, appearing before that person in a body beheld with joy by all living beings, preaching Dharma to him, demonstrating to him, teaching him, benefitting and delighting him. I will also give him this dharal)f charm. (Leon Hurvitz, trans., Scripture of the
Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma [[[New York]]: Columbia University Press, 1976], pp. 333-334.)
The Kuan p'u-hsien p'u-sa hsing-fa ching (T#277) was translated by the
Kashmiran monk Dharmamitra during the first half of the fifth century. Given the close connection between this siitra and the "Exhortations of Samantabhadra " chapter of the Lotus Sutra, these two siitras, together with the Wu-liang i ching, came to be regarded as a single set and were often referred to as the Three Great Scriptures of the Lotus."
70. Miao-fa lien-hua ching, T9.37a-39c. Hui-ssu bases this practice of the course of ease and bliss (an-to hsing) on T9.37al2-20, especially the lines that read:

If, further, he performs no act with respect to the dharmas, but views the dharmas in keeping with their true marks; if, also, he performs no act and commits no discrimmination, this is called "the place where the bodhisattva-mahasattva acts" (Hurvitz, Lotus, p. 208).
71. Hui-ssu, Fa-hua ching an-to hsing i, T46. 700a19-29.

72. Both the MHCK and KHLS accounts of Lotus samadhi mention the existence of the manual Fa-hua san-mei ch 'an-i and cite it as the primary guide for the practice. As this manual, even late in Chih-i's career, continued to be regarded as so important, and as it also offers a much more complete account of the practice than either of these two later sources, we will rely on it primarily in the course of the discussion that follows.
73. The same set of five penances is used in the P'u ching li (KCPL, T46. 794c23-a 12)-one of the main procedures used during the worship services conducted in the community meditation hall at the six intervals of the day. Curiously, however, the fifth element in the set described in the Fa-hua san-mei ch 'an-i-the setting forth of vows-involves not the vow to save all living beings, but the vow "to be reborn in the [[[Pure Land]]] of ease and
nourishment, be received by Amitabha face to face, meet the sagely retinue, and cultivate the ten stages [of the bodhisattva path]" (T46. 953b23-24).
74. Fa-hua san-mei ch'an-i, T46.952bl-2. The passages to be recited for the confession of the sins of the six senses, and the instructions for the visualization that accompanies it, are drawn from the text of the Kuan p'u-hsien p 'usa hsing-fa ching (T#277). The accounts of Lotus samadhi in the MHCK and KHLS, apart from giving an outline of the ten sections of the Fa-hua san-mei ch 'an-i, say little about the actual procedure of the practice itself. At one point they go into an extended analysis of the meaning of the iconographical sy mbolism of Samantabhadra, but this would seem to have no active bearing on the meditation itself, apart from facilitating the practitioner's sensitivity to the spiritual significance of the imagery. Chan-jan, in his commentary to this section of the MHCK, suggests that Chih-i chose to expand there on the meaning of this visualization simply to augment and
further explain the sparse description of it that appears in the Fa-hua sanmei ch 'an-i ( Chih-kuan fu-hsing ch 'uan hung-chiieh, T46.192b) .
75. Fa-hua san-mei ch 'an-i, T46.954a3-8.

76. For those who prefer recitation, or who are unskilled in meditative discernment, recitation of the siitra may be continued while sitting in meditation. However, at the very least the four normal watches of seated meditation
(presumably those normally performed in the community hall) must be kept (see T46.953c22-25).
77. Fa-hua san-mei ch'an-i, T46.954al9-25.
78. Fa-hua san-mei ch' an-i, T46. 950a2-15.
79. Sato Tetsuei regards Chih-i's version of Lotus samadhi, as described in Fahua san-mei ch' an-i, as considerably different from that of Hui-ssu. His primary criterion for this assertion is that Chih-i integrated the two approaches of "possessing characteristics" and "devoid of characteristics" into one and the same practice, whereas Hui-ssu kept them totally separate. This conclusion is suspect. Sat6 fails to notice that Chih-i quite clearly preserves Huissu's distinction between the ritualistic twenty-one day repentance and the extended (and unstructured) course of ease and bliss. Therefore, the only
real difference between Chih-i's version of Lotus samadhi and that of Huissu is that Chih-i explicitly finds a place for the "featureless" approach (of

Principle) in the twenty-one day repentance (as well as an-lo hsing), whereas Hui-ssu describes the twenty-one day repentance solely as a "phenomenal" practice of concentrating on recitation of the text. Nevertheless, Hui-ssu's description of this twenty-one day practice is quite brief (and not the main focus of the work) and does not truly justify the rather strong conclusions that Sato draws from it. See Tendai daishi no kenkyu, pp. 135-136.
80. Fa-hua san-mei ch' an-i, T46.955b24-cl.

81. Fa-hua san-mei ch' an-i, T954b6-8.
82. Hui-ssu, Fa-hua ching an-to hsing i, T46. 702b8-15.
83. In his commentary Chan-jan gives the Ch'i fo pa p'u-sa shen chou ching
("Sfitra of the Divine Spells of the Seven Buddhas [of Antiquity] and the Eight Bodhisattvas," T#1 332), translated during the Chin dynasty, as the possible source for the repentance of the seven Buddhas and eight bodhisattvas. He traces the discipline of eight hundred days of cleaning latrines [as taught by] the bodhisattva Akasagarbha to the Kuan hsii-k'ung-tsang p'u-sa ching ("Sfitra on the Visualization of the Bodhisattva Akasagarbha," T#409), which was translated the first half of the fifth century by the Khashimiran monk Dharmamitra. According to Chan-jan (who bases his account on this scripture), this latter practice involves secretly cleaning the latrines, meditating on the bodhisattva Akasagarbha, and repenting before the thirty-five Buddhas of confession every day for a period of eight hundred days. See Chih-kuan fu-hsing ch 'uan-hung-chiieh, T46.196c8197al9.
84. KCPL, Chin Kuang-ming ch 'an-fa, T46.7 96a. The practice commences on one of the six monthly uposatha days. Over the course of the repentence (which lasts for one week) the participants bathe and purify themselves daily, as in the other repentances. The main worship and confessional ceremony comes just before the noon meal. The remainder of the day (and night) is occupied with reciting the Suvarnaprabhiisa-sutra, meditating, and performing the invocations standardly used at the other five intervals of worship.

85. Ch 'ing kuan-shih-yin hsiao-fu tu-hai t 'o-lo-ni ching, T20.124.
86. MHCK states that this trinity of figures is to be enshrined on the western side of the hall (presumably because this is the direction of the Pure Land of Sukhiivati, where they reside). The manual of Ch 'ing Kuan-yin ch' an-fa in the KCPL, however, stipulates that an image of Buddha (Sakyamuni?) is to be placed facing south, and a lone image of Avalokitesvara is arranged (on the western side of the hall) facing east (T46.795b1 8-19).
87. The seven Buddhas are Vipasyin, Sikhin, Visvabhuj, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, Kasyapa, and Sakyamuni.
88. The offering of a willow sprig and water derives from the sfitra itself: "The people of Vaisali thereupon prepared willow sprigs and purified water and presented them to the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara" (T20.124c). Kuan-ting, in his commentary to this passage in the Ch'ing Kuan-yin ching shu, notes: "This is to encourage the acquiring of the two causes that act as the primary instigation [for enlightenment]. The willow sprig sweeps away, thereby symbolizing insight. Purified water is clear and cool, thereby symbolizing [the stability of the absorption of] samadhi" (D9.973a). Chan-jan notes in his commentary to this section of the MHCK: "As for setting out [the offering of] the willow sprig and so forth, because Kuan-yin holds a willow in her left hand and a vase for bathing (kut:r/ikii?) in her right, therefore the devotee must prepare these two items" (T46.193c). The term yang-chih, literally meaning "willow sprig," was used by the Chinese to translate the Sanskrit

term dantakil${a, which designates a short piece of soft branch from a banyan tree that was chewed by Indians to clean the teeth. Although the original meaning of the vase and branch held by Avalokitesvara would seem to suggest the idea of purification (through bathing and cleansing the teeth), the particular nuances that such images suggested to the Chinese seem to have eventually obscured the original connotations.
89. MHCK adds the activity of ritual ablutions or bathing here (T46.15a6).
90. MHCK and the Ch'ing Kuan-yin ch'an-fa of KCPL both call for ritual recitation of the sutra. The outline of the contents of an older text for the ch 'ing Kuan-yin repentance that Kuan-ting lists in his Ch' ing Kuan-yin ching shu, however, does not mention recitation, but instead calls for seated meditation. Kuan-ting gives the entire ritual format as follows: "Formerly [[[Chih-i]]] devised a procedure for repentance based on the text of this scripture and stipulated ten points that were consistently to be put into practice. Eight [of these] points come from the text of the sutra. [The ten] are: (I) preparations (self-inspection?), (2) adorning the sanctuary, (3) performing obeisance, burning incense, and scattering flowers, (4) fixing one's attention (in mindfulness), (5) preparing the willow and water, (6) inviting the Three Jewels, (7) reciting the dharal)l, (8) exposing and confessing (sins), (9) doing prostrations (and making obeisance), (10) sitting in meditation. These ten items are explained as containing both [the approaches of] Principle and phenomenal activity" (T39.973al9-23).

91. MHCK, T46.15a24-25.
92. Kuan-ting, in his Ch 'ing Kuan-yin ching shu, reverses the arrangement of the three dharal)l and the three obstructions, so that the dharal)l of six-syllable phrases is matched with the obstruction of endowment, and the dharal)l for dispelling poison with the obstruction of vexation (T39.973a).
93. The Ch'ing Kuan-yin ching offers no clear explanation of why the third dharal)l is called dharal)l of six-syllable phrases. Chih-i, Kuan-ting, and Chan-jan offer various possible interpretations-the number six can refer to six syllables or phrases, or it can derive from a multiple of the Three Jewels -but the explanation they tend to favor is to equate the number six with the six realms of existence or the six senses. This is predominantly why Kuanting matches the dharal)l of six-syllable phrases with the obstruction of endowment-endowmnent being the six sense faculties and the six realms of existence into which one is born. Recitation of this dharal)l brings realization of the intrinsic purity of the six senses and realization of the interfusion of all realms of existence and their ultimate participation in the truth of the Middle.
94. Ta-pan nieh-p'an ching, Tl2.448b-c. A detailed discussion of the relationship of these twenty-five samadhis to the twenty-five states of existence (and their place in the course of bodhisattva training) appears in Chih-i's Ssuchiao i (T46. 755c29-758b28).
95. MHCK, T46.15b. These experiences are described in the st1tra as two among the various possible benefits that the practitioner can obtain from this practice (T20.35c, 38a).

96. Hui-ssu's Sui-tzu-i san-mei (ZZ2/3/4.344a) is divided into six sections according to the six activities of walking, standing still, sitting, lying down, eating, and speaking. Each section gives explicit instructions (replete with various expedients) for cultivating samadhi, realizing emptiness, and perfecting the Six Perfections at any moment one is engaged in these six activities. At the beginning of the first section, which is concerned with cultivating samadhi while walking, the following exchange occurs: "[[[Hui-ssu]]

remarks], 'When engaged in the deportment of walking, lifting his foot or lowering his foot thought after instant of thought, the bodhisattva is fully endowed with the Six Perfections.' [Someone] asked, 'What scripture does this idea come from?' [[[Hui-ssu]]] replied, 'It comes from the Surmigamasutra' " (ZZ2/3/4.344dl4-16). Hui-ssu's description of "lifting the foot and lowering the foot, thought after thought . . . being fully endowed with the Six Perfections" is taken directly from the Surangamasamiidhi-sutra. In that siitra this line introduces a lengthy discussion wherein the Buddha explains to Drdhamati how the bodhisattva who has realized surangamasamiidhi is able to perfect each of the Six Perfections at any given instant and amidst any activity (TI5.633b-634a). Hui-ssu appears to have modeled the basic structure of his text-fulfilling the Six Perfections in the midst of each of the six activities of walking, standing, and so forth-on this section of the Surangama-sutra. However, yet another possible source for this scheme could be the chapter on "The Myriad Practices [Contained Within] One Mind" (i-hsin wan hsing p'in) of the TCTL (T25.670b), wherein very similar descriptions of perfecting the Six Perfections in an instant of activity can be found. Aside from the brief exchange in the opening lines of the section on cultivating samadhi while walking, the Surangama-sutra is not mentioned anywhere else in Hui-ssu's text of Sui-tzu-i san-mei. Although the notion of eliciting the fundamental emptiness of all phenomena in any given instant of activity (and thereby realizing a kind of spiritual omniscience over all aspects of existence) is certainly a major theme of the Surm;gama-sutra, no practice having either the name or the particular character of sui-tzu-i appears there. In fact, the siitra itself is not so much concerned with describing the practice of surangamasamiidhi as it is with describing the extraordinary spiritual powers and omniscience of one who has already obtained it. Hui-ssu himself seems to be aware of this fact. He sees a definite relationship between sui-tzu-i and surangama-samiidhi, but he is careful to make the distinction that sui-tzu-i is the practice and surangamasamiidhi is the result. "If this samadhi [of sui-tzu-11 is successful;' Hui-ssu tells us, "then one will attain surangamasamiidhi" (ZZ2/3/4.344d 17-18). Therefore, although Hui-ssu may have looked to the Surangama-sutra to lend an air of legitimacy to sui-tzu-i, it is difficult to claim that the practice was explicitly derived from this siitra.

97. Mo-ho po-jo po-fo-mi ching, T8.251 b.
98. TCTL, T25.401a25-26.
99. MHCK, T46.14b26-cl; KHLS, T46.603b22-26.
100. KHLS, T46.603b28-9.

101. The account of sui-tzu-i that appears in KHLS is brief, consisting of little more than the rudimentary definition of the terms "sui-tzu-i," "chiieh-i sanmei," and "fei-hsing jei-tso" cited above. The scheme of classifying activities into wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral, as well as the lengthy discussions concerning meditation amidst such activities that appears in the MHCK, is not to be found in KHLS at all. Sato Tetsuei speculates that this material did not exist in the earlier recension of MHCK but was actually added by Kuan-ting when he edited the final version of MHCK. Given the close parallels between the meditations outlined here and those found in the manual of Chiieh san-mei hsing-fa (many passages being identical), it appears that the author relied heavily on this manual. See SatO, Tendai daishi no kenkyu, pp. 173-189, 393.
102. Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, T46.623a12-14. The Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa

subsumes and classifies all the possible types of activity into a rubric of six (outer) activities-(1) walking, (2) standing, (3) sitting, (4) lying down, (5) miscellaneous functions, (6) speaking-and six (internal) activities of sense perception-(!) seeing, (2) hearing, (3) smelling, (4) tasting, (5) touching, (6) thinking. The text describes in detail the procedure for meditating while involved in each of these activities. The MHCK version of sui-tzu-i adopts this same twelvefold scheme, but adds the broader classification of activities into wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral. Although we do in fact find meditation amidst wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral dharmas mentioned in the passage from the Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa cited here, these three features are not given formal attention anywhere else in the text.
103. Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, T46.623b25-24bll. The method of distinguishing the two phases of not-yet-thinking and being about-to-think, as well as the discernment of them according to the four alternatives, is based on the meditation for the activity of walking prescribed by Hui-ssu in his Sui-tzu-i san-mei, ZZ2/3/4.345a3-d4.

104. Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, T46.624bl3-28.
105. MHCK, T46.18c10-18. 106. MHCK, T46.18cl9-20.
107. The treatment of various expedients in the Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa occurs in the following sections. The making of initial vows and the cultivation of the Six Perfections are treated in chapter three, "Expedient Practices" (Jang-pien hsing). Chapter four, "Clarifying the Distinguishing Characteristics of Mind" (ming hsin hsiang), describes the features of the basic meditative object-the four phases. Chapter five, "Entering the Gate of True Discernment" (ju cheng kuan men), describes the general procedure for discerning the four phases in terms of the four logical alternatives. It is here that Chih-i outlines the approach of first developing mental concentration (and an initial insight into emptiness of mind) through sitting, and then extending this to all other activities. Illuminating the mind through the practice of seated meditation is referred to as the general discernment (!sung kuan). Carrying this insight to miscellaneous activities (i.e. the six external activities and the six internal activities of sense perception) is called the specific or distinct discernment (pieh kuan).

108. Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, T46.623b29-c3.
109. Chih-i's scheme of matching the six coverings (liu pi) with the Six Perfections appears to derive from the TCTL, T25.303c-304c.
110. Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, T46.622c4-6.
Ill. Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, T46.622c28-623a4.
112. Formal seated meditation was regarded as the posture most conducive to calming the mind and entering the Way. Chih-i makes this claim in his Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa (T46.624c5-9); Hui-ssu makes this claim in his Sui-tzu-i san-mei (ZZ2/3/4.347b).
113. Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, T46.624c 15-17.
114. Hui-ssu, Sui-tzu-i san-mei, ZZ2/3/4.346c. The final chapter of Chih-i's Chiieh-i san-mei hsing-fa, "Signs of Successful Realization" (cheng hsiang), is devoted entirely to describing the various stages of spirtual developmental may come as a result of this practice. Chih-i's ideas in this regard conform fully to the description offered by Hui-ssu but are far more elaborate and technical in nature. For the sake of brevity and impact we have chosen to cite Hui-ssu's account.
115. MHCK, T46.19b27-c7.