Difference between revisions of "Buddhism"
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− | While [[Buddhism]] remains most popular within {{Wiki|Asia}}, both branches are now found throughout the world. Estimates of [[Buddhists]] worldwide vary significantly depending on the way [[Buddhist]] adherence is defined. Conservative estimates are between 350 and 750 million. Higher estimates are between 1.2 and 1.7 billion. It is also recognized as one of the fastest growing religions in the world. | + | |
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+ | [[Buddhism]] is a [[religion]] indigenous to the [[Indian]] subcontinent that encompasses a variety of [[traditions]], [[beliefs]] and practices largely based on teachings attributed to [[Siddhartha]] [[Gautama]], | ||
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+ | who is commonly known as the [[Buddha]] (meaning "[[the awakened one]]" in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pāli]]). The [[Buddha]] lived and [[taught]] in the eastern part of the [[Indian]] subcontinent between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. | ||
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+ | He is [[recognized]] by [[Buddhists]] as an [[awakened]] or [[enlightened]] [[teacher]] who shared his [[insights]] to help [[sentient beings]] end [[suffering]] ([[dukkha]]) through eliminating [[ignorance]] ([[avidyā]]) by way of [[understanding]] and [[seeing]] [[dependent origination]] ([[pratītyasamutpāda]]) and eliminating [[craving]] ([[taṇhā]]), and thus attain the [[cessation]] of all [[suffering]], the [[sublime]] [[state]] of [[nirvāņa]]. | ||
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+ | Two major branches of [[Buddhism]] are generally [[recognized]]: [[Theravada]] ("The [[School of the Elders]]") and [[Mahayana]] ("The [[Great Vehicle]]"). [[Theravada]] has a widespread following in [[Sri Lanka]] and {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}} ([[Cambodia]], {{Wiki|Laos}}, [[Thailand]], {{Wiki|Myanmar}} etc.). [[Mahayana]] is found throughout | ||
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+ | {{Wiki|East Asia}} | ||
+ | ([[China]], | ||
+ | [[Korea]], | ||
+ | [[Japan]], | ||
+ | [[Vietnam]], | ||
+ | [[Singapore]], | ||
+ | {{Wiki|Taiwan}} | ||
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+ | etc.) and includes the [[traditions]] of [[Pure Land]], [[Zen]], [[Nichiren Buddhism]], [[Tibetan Buddhism]], [[Shingon]], and [[Tiantai]] ([[Tendai]]). In some classifications, [[Vajrayana]]—practiced mainly in [[Tibet]] and [[Mongolia]], and adjacent parts of [[China]] and {{Wiki|Russia}}—is [[recognized]] as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of [[Mahayana]]. | ||
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+ | While [[Buddhism]] remains most popular within {{Wiki|Asia}}, both branches are now found throughout the [[world]]. Estimates of [[Buddhists]] worldwide vary significantly depending on the way [[Buddhist]] adherence is defined. | ||
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+ | {{Wiki|Conservative}} estimates are between 350 and 750 million. Higher estimates are between 1.2 and 1.7 billion. It is also [[recognized]] as one of the fastest growing [[religions]] in the [[world]]. | ||
[[File:29e.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:29e.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
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− | + | [[Buddhist]] schools vary on the exact [[nature]] of the [[path]] to [[liberation]], the importance and canonicity of various teachings and [[scriptures]], and especially their respective practices. | |
− | + | The foundations of [[Buddhist]] [[tradition]] and practice are the [[Three Jewels]]: the [[Buddha]], the [[Dharma]] (the teachings), and the [[Sangha]] (the {{Wiki|community}}). | |
− | According to author Michael Carrithers, while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, "the outline of the life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death." In writing her biography of the [[Buddha]], Karen Armstrong noted, "It is obviously difficult, therefore, to write a biography of the [[Buddha]] that meets modern criteria, because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound... [but] we can be reasonably confident [[Siddhatta]] [[Gotama]] did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could." | + | Taking "[[refuge]] in the [[triple gem]]" has [[traditionally]] been a declaration and commitment to being on the [[Buddhist]] [[path]], and in general distinguishes a [[Buddhist]] from a [[non-Buddhist]]. |
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+ | Other practices may include following [[ethical]] [[precepts]]; support of the [[monastic community]]; renouncing [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] living and becoming a [[monastic]]; | ||
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+ | the [[development]] of [[mindfulness]] and practice of [[meditation]]; [[cultivation]] of higher [[wisdom]] and [[discernment]]; study of [[scriptures]]; devotional practices; {{Wiki|ceremonies}}; and in the [[Mahayana]] [[tradition]], {{Wiki|invocation}} of [[buddhas]] and [[bodhisattvas]]. | ||
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+ | ==[[Life of the Buddha]]== | ||
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+ | This {{Wiki|narrative}} draws on the [[Nidānakathā]] {{Wiki|biography}} of the [[Theravāda]] [[sect]] in [[Sri Lanka]], which is ascribed to [[Buddhaghoṣa]] in the 5th century CE. | ||
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+ | Earlier {{Wiki|biographies}} such as the [[Buddhacarita]], the [[Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu]], and the [[Mahāyāna]] / [[Sarvāstivāda Lalitavistara Sūtra]], give different accounts. [[Scholars]] are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the [[Buddha]]'s [[life]]. Most accept that he lived, [[taught]] and founded a [[monastic order]], but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his {{Wiki|biographies}}. | ||
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+ | According to author Michael [[Carrithers]], while there are good [[reasons]] to [[doubt]] the [[traditional]] account, "the outline of the [[life]] must be true: [[birth]], maturity, [[renunciation]], search, [[awakening]] and [[liberation]], [[teaching]], [[death]]." | ||
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+ | In [[writing]] her {{Wiki|biography}} of the [[Buddha]], {{Wiki|Karen Armstrong}} noted, "It is obviously difficult, therefore, to write a {{Wiki|biography}} of the [[Buddha]] that meets {{Wiki|modern}} criteria, because we have very little [[information]] that can be considered historically [[sound]]... [but] we can be reasonably confident [[Siddhatta]] [[Gotama]] did indeed [[exist]] and that his [[disciples]] preserved the [[memory]] of his [[life]] and teachings as well as they could." | ||
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− | According to the [[Theravada]] [[Tripitaka]] scriptures (from [[Pali]], meaning "three baskets"), [[Gautama]] was born in [[Lumbini]] in modern-day [[Nepal]], around the year 563 BCE, and raised in [[Kapilavastu]]. | + | The {{Wiki|evidence}} of the early texts suggests that [[Siddhārtha]] [[Gautama]] was born in a {{Wiki|community}} that was on the {{Wiki|periphery}}, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern [[Indian]] subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. |
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+ | It was either a small {{Wiki|republic}}, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch. | ||
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+ | According to the [[Theravada]] [[Tripitaka]] [[scriptures]] (from [[Pali]], meaning "[[three baskets]]"), [[Gautama]] was born in [[Lumbini]] in modern-day [[Nepal]], around the year 563 BCE, and raised in [[Kapilavastu]]. | ||
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+ | According to this {{Wiki|narrative}}, shortly after the [[birth]] of young {{Wiki|prince}} [[Gautama]], an [[astrologer]] visited the young prince's father—King [[Śuddhodana]]—and prophesied that [[Siddhartha]] would either become a great [[king]] or {{Wiki|renounce}} the material [[world]] to become a {{Wiki|holy}} man, depending on whether he saw what [[life]] was like outside the palace walls. | ||
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+ | [[Śuddhodana]] was determined to see his son become a [[king]], so he prevented him from leaving the palace grounds. | ||
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+ | But at age 29, despite his father's efforts, [[Gautama]] ventured [[beyond]] the palace several times. In a series of encounters—known in [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|literature}} as the four sights—he learned of the [[suffering]] of [[ordinary people]], encountering an old man, a sick man, a corpse and, finally, an [[ascetic]] {{Wiki|holy}} man, apparently content and at [[peace]] with the [[world]]. | ||
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+ | These [[experiences]] prompted [[Gautama]] to abandon {{Wiki|royal}} [[life]] and take up a [[spiritual]] quest. | ||
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+ | [[Gautama]] first went to study with famous [[religious]] [[teachers]] of the day, and mastered the [[meditative]] [[attainments]] they [[taught]]. | ||
− | + | But he found that they did not provide a [[permanent]] end to [[suffering]], so he continued his quest. He next attempted an extreme [[asceticism]], which was a [[religious]] pursuit common among the [[Shramanas]], a [[religious]] {{Wiki|culture}} {{Wiki|distinct}} from the {{Wiki|Vedic}} one. [[Gautama]] underwent prolonged [[fasting]], breath-holding, and exposure to [[pain]]. He almost starved himself to [[death]] in the process. | |
− | [[ | + | He [[realized]] that he had taken this kind of practice to its limit, and had not put an end to [[suffering]]. |
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+ | So in a pivotal [[moment]] he accepted milk and {{Wiki|rice}} from a village girl and changed his approach. He devoted himself to [[anapanasati]] [[meditation]], through which he discovered what [[Buddhists]] call the [[Middle Way]] (Skt. [[madhyamā-pratipad]] ): a [[path]] of moderation between the [[extremes]] of self-indulgence and [[self-mortification]]. | ||
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− | [[Gautama]] was now determined to complete his spiritual quest. At the age of 35, he famously sat in [[meditation]] under a sacred fig tree — known as the [[Bodhi tree]] — in the town of [[Bodh Gaya]], [[India]], and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment. After many days, he finally destroyed the fetters of his mind, thereby liberating himself from the cycle of [[suffering]] and [[rebirth]], and arose as a fully [[enlightened]] being (Skt. [[samyaksaṃbuddha]]). Soon thereafter, he attracted a band of followers and instituted a monastic order. Now, as the [[Buddha]], he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had discovered, traveling throughout the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent, and died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in [[Kushinagar]], [[India]]. The south branch of the original fig tree available only in [[Anuradhapura]] [[Sri Lanka]] is known as [[Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi]]. | + | [[Gautama]] was now determined to complete his [[spiritual]] quest. At the age of 35, he famously sat in [[meditation]] under a [[sacred]] fig [[tree]] — known as the [[Bodhi tree]] — in the town of [[Bodh Gaya]], [[India]], and [[vowed]] not to rise before achieving [[enlightenment]]. |
− | Buddhist concepts | + | |
+ | After many days, he finally destroyed the [[fetters]] of his [[mind]], thereby liberating himself from the cycle of [[suffering]] and [[rebirth]], and arose as a fully [[enlightened]] being (Skt. [[samyaksaṃbuddha]]). Soon thereafter, he attracted a band of followers and instituted a [[monastic order]]. | ||
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+ | Now, as the [[Buddha]], he spent the rest of his [[life]] [[teaching]] the [[path of awakening]] he had discovered, traveling throughout the northeastern part of the [[Indian]] subcontinent, and [[died]] at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in [[Kushinagar]], [[India]]. | ||
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+ | The [[south]] branch of the original fig [[tree]] available only in [[Anuradhapura]] [[Sri Lanka]] is known as [[Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi]]. | ||
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+ | ===[[Buddhist]] [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]]=== | ||
− | Life and the world | + | ==[[Life]] and the [[world |
− | [[Saṃsāra | + | =[[Saṃsāra] |
− | [[Samsara]] is "the cycle of birth and death". [[Sentient beings]] crave pleasure and are averse to pain from birth to death. In being controlled by these attitudes, they perpetuate the cycle of conditioned existence and suffering ([[saṃsāra]]), and produce the causes and conditions of the next rebirth after death. Each [[rebirth]] repeats this process in an involuntary cycle, which Buddhists strive to end by eradicating these causes and conditions, applying the methods laid out by the [[Buddha]] and subsequent [[Buddhists]]. | + | [[Samsara]] is "the cycle of [[birth]] and [[death]]". [[Sentient beings]] [[crave]] [[pleasure]] and are averse to [[pain]] from [[birth]] to [[death]]. In being controlled by these attitudes, they perpetuate the cycle of [[conditioned]] [[existence]] and [[suffering]] ([[saṃsāra]]), and produce the [[causes]] and [[conditions]] of the next [[rebirth]] after [[death]]. Each [[rebirth]] repeats this process in an involuntary cycle, which [[Buddhists]] strive to end by eradicating these [[causes]] and [[conditions]], applying the methods laid out by the [[Buddha]] and subsequent [[Buddhists]]. |
− | Karma | + | |
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+ | ==[[Karma]]== | ||
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[[File:00.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:00.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | [[Karma]] (from [[Sanskrit]]: "action, work") in [[Buddhism]] is the force that drives [[saṃsāra]]—the cycle of [[suffering]] and [[rebirth]] for each being. Good, skillful deeds (Pāli: "[[kusala]]") and bad, unskillful (Pāli: "[[akusala]]") actions produce "seeds" in the mind that come to fruition either in this life or in a subsequent [[rebirth]]. The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions is called [[śīla]] (from Sanskrit: "ethical conduct"). | + | [[Karma]] (from [[Sanskrit]]: "[[action]], work") in [[Buddhism]] is the force that drives [[saṃsāra]]—the cycle of [[suffering]] and [[rebirth]] for each being. |
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+ | Good, [[skillful]] [[deeds]] ([[Pāli]]: "[[kusala]]") and bad, [[unskillful]] ([[Pāli]]: "[[akusala]]") [[actions]] produce "[[seeds]]" in the [[mind]] that come to [[fruition]] either in this [[life]] or in a subsequent [[rebirth]]. | ||
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+ | The avoidance of [[unwholesome]] [[actions]] and the [[cultivation]] of positive [[actions]] is called [[śīla]] (from [[Sanskrit]]: "[[ethical]] conduct"). | ||
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+ | In [[Buddhism]], [[karma]] specifically refers to those [[actions]] (of [[body]], [[speech]], and [[mind]]) that spring from [[mental]] intent ("[[cetana]]") and bring about a consequence or fruit, ([[phala]]) or result ([[vipāka]]). | ||
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+ | In [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]] there can be no [[divine]] {{Wiki|salvation}} or [[forgiveness]] for one's [[karma]], since it is a purely {{Wiki|impersonal}} process that is a part of the [[makeup]] of the [[universe]]. | ||
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+ | In [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]], the texts of certain [[Mahayana sutras]] (such as the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Angulimaliya Sutra]] and the [[Nirvana Sutra]]) claim that reciting or merely hearing their texts can expunge great swathes of negative [[karma]]. | ||
− | + | Some [[forms]] of [[Buddhism]] (for example, [[Vajrayana]]) regard the {{Wiki|recitation}} of [[mantras]] as a means for cutting off previous negative [[karma]]. | |
− | + | The [[Japanese]] [[Pure Land]] [[teacher]] [[Genshin]] [[taught]] that [[Amida]] [[Buddha]] has the power to destroy the [[karma]] that would otherwise bind one in [[saṃsāra]]. | |
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− | [[Rebirth]] refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception to death. [[Buddhism]] rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in Hinduism and {{Wiki|Christianity}}. According to [[Buddhism]] there ultimately is no such thing as a self independent from the rest of the [[universe]] (the doctrine of [[anatta]]). [[Rebirth]] in subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic, ever-changing process of "[[dependent arising]]" ("[[pratītyasamutpāda]]") determined by the [[laws of cause]] and effect ([[karma]]) rather than that of one being, transmigrating or incarnating from one existence to the next. | + | |
+ | ==[[Rebirth]]== | ||
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+ | [[Rebirth]] refers to a process whereby [[beings]] go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible [[forms]] of [[sentient]] [[life]], each running from {{Wiki|conception}} to [[death]]. | ||
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+ | [[Buddhism]] rejects the [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] of a [[permanent]] [[self]] or an [[unchanging]], [[eternal]] [[soul]], as it is called in [[Hinduism]] and {{Wiki|Christianity}}. | ||
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+ | According to [[Buddhism]] there ultimately is no such thing as a [[self]] {{Wiki|independent}} from the rest of the [[universe]] (the [[doctrine]] of [[anatta]]). | ||
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+ | [[Rebirth]] in subsequent [[existences]] must be understood as the [[continuation]] of a dynamic, ever-changing process of "[[dependent arising]]" ("[[pratītyasamutpāda]]") determined by the [[laws of cause]] and effect ([[karma]]) rather than that of one being, transmigrating or [[incarnating]] from one [[existence]] to the next. | ||
[[File:114es.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:114es.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
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− | + | Each [[rebirth]] takes place within one of five [[realms]] according to [[Theravadins]], or six according to other schools. These are further subdivided into [[31 planes of existence]]: | |
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− | [[ | + | <poem> |
+ | [[Naraka]] [[beings]]: those who [[live]] in one of many [[Narakas]] ([[Hells]]); | ||
+ | [[Preta]]: sometimes sharing some [[space]] with [[humans]], but {{Wiki|invisible}} to most [[people]]; an important variety is the [[hungry ghost]]; | ||
+ | [[Animals]]: sharing [[space]] with [[humans]], but considered another type of [[life]]; | ||
+ | [[Human beings]]: one of the [[realms]] of [[rebirth]] in which [[attaining]] [[Nirvana]] is possible; | ||
+ | [[Asuras]]: variously translated as lowly [[deities]], {{Wiki|demons}}, titans, [[antigods]]; not [[recognized]] by [[Theravāda]] ([[Mahavihara]]) [[tradition]] as a separate [[realm]]; | ||
+ | [[Devas]] including [[Brahmas]]: variously translated as [[gods]], [[deities]], [[spirits]], {{Wiki|angels}}, or left untranslated. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
− | According to East Asian and Tibetan [[Buddhism]], there is an intermediate state (Tibetan "[[Bardo]]") between one life and the next. The orthodox [[Theravada]] position rejects this; however there are passages in the [[Samyutta Nikaya]] of the [[Pali Canon]] (the collection of texts on which the [[Theravada]] tradition is based), that seem to lend support to the idea that the [[Buddha]] taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next. | + | [[Rebirths]] in some of the higher [[heavens]], known as the [[Śuddhāvāsa]] [[Worlds]] ([[Pure Abodes]]), can be [[attained]] by only [[skilled]] [[Buddhist]] practitioners known as [[anāgāmis]] ([[non-returners]]). [[Rebirths]] in the [[arupa-dhatu]] ([[formless realms]]) can be [[attained]] by only those who can [[meditate]] on the [[arūpajhānas]], the [[highest]] [[object]] of [[meditation]]. |
− | Suffering's causes and solution | + | |
− | The [[Four Noble Truths]] | + | |
+ | According to {{Wiki|East Asian}} and [[Tibetan]] [[Buddhism]], there is an [[intermediate state]] ([[Tibetan]] "[[Bardo]]") between one [[life]] and the next. The {{Wiki|orthodox}} [[Theravada]] position rejects this; however there are passages in the [[Samyutta Nikaya]] of the [[Pali Canon]] (the collection of texts on which the [[Theravada]] [[tradition]] is based), that seem to lend support to the [[idea]] that the [[Buddha]] [[taught]] of an [[intermediate stage]] between one [[life]] and the next. | ||
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+ | ==[[Suffering's causes and solution]]== | ||
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+ | =The [[Four Noble Truths]]= | ||
[[File:00buddha513.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:00buddha513.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The teachings on the [[Four Noble Truths]] are regarded as central to the teachings of [[Buddhism]], and are said to provide a conceptual framework for [[Buddhist]] thought. These four truths explain the nature of [[dukkha]] ([[suffering]], anxiety, dissatisfaction), its causes, and how it can be overcome. | + | The teachings on the [[Four Noble Truths]] are regarded as central to the teachings of [[Buddhism]], and are said to provide a {{Wiki|conceptual}} framework for [[Buddhist]] [[thought]]. These [[four truths]] explain the [[nature]] of [[dukkha]] ([[suffering]], [[anxiety]], [[dissatisfaction]]), its [[causes]], and how it can be overcome. |
− | + | The [[four truths]] are: | |
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− | The first truth explains the nature of [[dukkha]]. [[Dukkha]] is commonly translated as “[[suffering]]”, | + | <poem> |
+ | The [[truth]] of [[dukkha]] ([[suffering]], [[anxiety]], [[dissatisfaction]]) | ||
+ | The [[truth]] of the origin of [[dukkha]] | ||
+ | The [[truth]] of the [[cessation]] of [[dukkha]] | ||
+ | The [[truth]] of the [[path]] leading to the [[cessation]] of [[dukkha]] | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
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+ | The [[first truth]] explains the [[nature]] of [[dukkha]]. [[Dukkha]] is commonly translated as “[[suffering]]”, “[[anxiety]]”, “[[dissatisfaction]]”, “unease”, etc., and it is said to have the following three aspects: | ||
− | the obvious [[suffering]] of [[physical]] and [[mental]] illness, growing old, and dying; | + | <poem> |
− | the anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing; and | + | the obvious [[suffering]] of [[physical]] and [[mental]] {{Wiki|illness}}, growing old, and dying; |
− | a subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life, due to the fact that all forms of life are [[impermanent]] and constantly changing. | + | the [[anxiety]] or [[stress]] of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing; and |
+ | a {{Wiki|subtle}} [[dissatisfaction]] pervading all [[forms]] of [[life]], due to the fact that all [[forms]] of [[life]] are [[impermanent]] and constantly changing. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
[[File:023.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:023.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The second truth is that the origin of [[dukkha]] can be known. Within the context of the [[four noble truths]], the origin of [[dukkha]] is commonly explained as craving ([[Pali]]: [[tanha]]) conditioned by [[ignorance]] (Pali: [[avijja]]). On a deeper level, the root cause of | + | The [[second truth]] is that the origin of [[dukkha]] can be known. |
− | [[Noble Eightfold Path]] | + | |
+ | Within the context of the [[four noble truths]], the origin of [[dukkha]] is commonly explained as [[craving]] ([[Pali]]: [[tanha]]) [[conditioned]] by [[ignorance]] ([[Pali]]: [[avijja]]). | ||
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+ | On a deeper level, the [[root cause of dukkha]] is identified as [[ignorance]] ([[Pali]]: [[avijja]]) of the [[true nature]] of things. | ||
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+ | The [[third noble truth]] is that the complete [[cessation]] of [[dukkha]] is possible, and the [[fourth noble truth]] identifies a [[path]] to this [[cessation]]. | ||
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+ | ==[[Noble Eightfold Path]]== | ||
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+ | ==The [[Dharmachakra represents the Noble Eightfold Path]]== | ||
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− | The [[Noble Eightfold Path]] | + | The [[Noble Eightfold Path]] — the fourth of the Buddha's Noble Truths]] — consists of a set of [[eight interconnected factors]] or [[conditions]], that when developed together, lead to the [[cessation]] of [[dukkha]]. |
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+ | ==These [[eight factors of the Noble Eightfold path]] are:== | ||
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+ | <poem> | ||
+ | [[Right View]] (or [[Right Understanding]]), | ||
+ | [[Right Intention]] (or [[Right Thought]]), | ||
+ | [[Right Speech]], | ||
+ | [[Right Action]], | ||
+ | [[Right Livelihood]], | ||
+ | [[Right Effort]], | ||
+ | [[Right Mindfulness]], and | ||
+ | [[Right Concentration]]. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
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+ | [[Ajahn Sucitto]] describes the [[path]] as "a [[mandala]] of interconnected factors that support and moderate each other." The [[eight factors of the Noble Eightfold path]] are not to be understood as stages, in which each stage is completed before moving on to the next. | ||
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+ | Rather, they are understood as eight significant {{Wiki|dimensions}} of one's behavior—mental, spoken, and bodily—that operate in {{Wiki|dependence}} on one another; taken together, they define a complete [[path]], or way of living. | ||
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[[File:2392957 611.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:2392957 611.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The eight factors of the path are commonly presented within three divisions (or higher trainings) as shown below: | + | The eight factors of the [[path]] are commonly presented within [[three divisions]] (or higher trainings) as shown below: |
− | Division Eightfold factor Sanskrit, Pali Description | + | |
− | Wisdom | + | <poem> |
− | (Sanskrit: prajñā, | + | [[Division]] Eightfold factor [[Sanskrit]], [[Pali]] Description |
− | Pāli: paññā) 1. Right view samyag dṛṣṭi, | + | |
− | sammā ditthi Viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be | + | [[Wisdom]] |
− | 2. Right intention samyag saṃkalpa, | + | |
− | sammā sankappa Intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness | + | ([[Sanskrit]]: [[prajñā]], |
− | Ethical conduct | + | |
− | (Sanskrit: śīla, | + | [[Pāli]]: [[paññā]]) 1. [[Right view]] [[samyag dṛṣṭi]], |
− | Pāli: sīla) 3. Right speech samyag | + | |
− | sammā vāca Speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way | + | [[sammā ditthi]] Viewing [[reality]] as it is, not just as it appears to be |
− | 4. Right action samyag karman, | + | |
− | sammā kammanta Acting in a non-harmful way | + | 2. [[Right intention]] [[samyag saṃkalpa]], |
− | 5. Right livelihood samyag ājīvana, | + | |
− | sammā ājīva A non-harmful livelihood | + | [[sammā sankappa]] [[Intention]] of [[renunciation]], freedom and [[harmlessness]] |
− | Concentration | + | [[Ethical]] conduct |
+ | ([[Sanskrit]]: [[śīla]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Pāli]]: [[sīla]]) 3. [[Right speech]] [[samyag vāca]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[sammā-vāca]] {{Wiki|Speaking}} in a truthful and non-hurtful way | ||
+ | |||
+ | 4. [[Right action]] [[samyag karman]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[sammā kammanta]] Acting in a non-harmful way | ||
+ | |||
+ | 5. [[Right livelihood]] [[samyag ājīvana]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[sammā ājīva]] A non-harmful [[livelihood]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Concentration]] | ||
[[File:172.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:172.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | (Sanskrit and Pāli: samādhi) 6. Right effort samyag vyāyāma, | + | ([[Sanskrit]] and [[Pāli]]: [[samādhi]]) 6. [[Right effort]] [[samyag vyāyāma]], |
− | |||
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− | |||
− | |||
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− | |||
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− | + | [[sammā vāyāma]] Making an [[effort]] to improve | |
− | May all sentient beings have happiness and its causes, | + | 7. [[Right mindfulness]] [[samyag smṛti]], |
− | May all sentient beings be free of suffering and its causes, | + | |
− | May all sentient beings never be separated from bliss without suffering, | + | [[sammā sati]] [[Awareness]] to see things for what they are with clear [[consciousness]]; |
− | May all sentient beings be in equanimity, free of bias, attachment and anger. | + | |
+ | being {{Wiki|aware}} of the {{Wiki|present}} [[reality]] within oneself, without any [[craving]] or [[aversion]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | 8. [[Right concentration]] [[samyag samādhi]], | ||
+ | [[sammā samādhi]] Correct [[meditation]] or [[concentration]], explained as the [[first four jhānas]] | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Four Immeasurables]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | article: [[Brahmavihara]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | While he searched for [[enlightenment]], [[Gautama]] combined the [[yoga]] practice of his [[teacher]] [[Kalama]] with what later became known as "the [[immeasurables]]". [[Gautama]] thus invented a new kind of [[human]], one without [[egotism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | What [[Thich Nhat Hanh]] calls the "[[Four Immeasurable Minds]]" of [[love]], [[compassion]], [[joy]], and [[equanimity]] are also known as [[brahmaviharas]], [[divine abodes]], or simply as [[four immeasurables]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Pema Chödrön]] calls them the "four {{Wiki|limitless}} ones". | ||
+ | |||
+ | Of the four, [[mettā]] or [[loving-kindness meditation]] is perhaps the best known. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Four Immeasurables]] are [[taught]] as a [[form]] of [[meditation]] that cultivates "[[wholesome]] attitudes towards all [[sentient beings]]." | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[practitioner]] prays: | ||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | May all [[sentient beings]] have [[happiness]] and its [[causes]], | ||
+ | May all [[sentient beings]] be free of [[suffering]] and its [[causes]], | ||
+ | May all [[sentient beings]] never be separated from [[bliss]] without [[suffering]], | ||
+ | May all [[sentient beings]] be in [[equanimity]], free of bias, [[attachment]] and [[anger]]. | ||
[[File:00x2400.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:00x2400.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | + | </poem> | |
− | |||
− | + | ==[[Middle Way]]== | |
− | |||
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− | |||
− | |||
− | [[Buddhist]] [[scholars]] have produced a remarkable quantity of intellectual theories, [[philosophies]] and world view concepts (see, for example, [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]). Some schools of [[Buddhism]] discourage doctrinal study, and some regard it as essential practice. | + | An important guiding [[principle]] of [[Buddhist practice]] is the [[Middle Way]] (or [[Middle Path]]), which is said to have been discovered by [[Gautama]] [[Buddha]] prior to his [[enlightenment]]. The [[Middle Way]] has several definitions: |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | The practice of non-extremism: a [[path]] of moderation away from the [[extremes]] of self-indulgence and [[self-mortification]]; | ||
+ | The middle ground between certain [[metaphysical]] [[views]] (for example, that things ultimately either do or do not [[exist]]); | ||
+ | An explanation of [[Nirvana]] ([[perfect enlightenment]]), a [[state]] wherein it becomes clear that all dualities apparent in the [[world]] are delusory (see [[Seongcheol]]); | ||
+ | |||
+ | Another term for [[emptiness]], the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[nature]] of all [[phenomena]] (in the [[Mahayana]] branch), a lack of [[inherent]] [[existence]], which avoids the [[extremes]] of {{Wiki|permanence}} and [[nihilism]] or [[inherent]] [[existence]] and [[nothingness]]. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Nature of existence]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Buddhist]] [[scholars]] have produced a remarkable {{Wiki|quantity}} of [[intellectual]] theories, [[philosophies]] and {{Wiki|world view}} [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] (see, for example, [[Abhidharma]], [[Buddhist philosophy]] and [[Reality in Buddhism]]). Some schools of [[Buddhism]] discourage [[doctrinal]] study, and some regard it as [[essential]] practice. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The {{Wiki|concept}} of [[liberation]] ([[nirvāṇa]])—the goal of the [[Buddhist]] path—is closely related to [[overcoming]] [[ignorance]] ([[avidyā]]), a fundamental {{Wiki|misunderstanding}} or misperception of the [[nature]] of [[reality]]. In [[awakening]] to the [[true nature]] of the [[self]] and all [[phenomena]] one develops [[dispassion]] for the [[objects]] of [[clinging]], and is {{Wiki|liberated}} from [[suffering]] ([[dukkha]]) and the cycle of {{Wiki|incessant}} [[rebirths]] ([[saṃsāra]]). To this end, the [[Buddha]] recommended viewing things as characterized by the [[three marks of existence]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Three Marks of Existence]]== | ||
− | |||
− | |||
[[File:0147.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:0147.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The Three Marks of Existence are impermanence, suffering, and not-self. | + | The [[Three Marks of Existence]] are [[impermanence]], [[suffering]], and {{Wiki|not-self}}. |
+ | |||
+ | [[Impermanence]] ([[Pāli]]: [[anicca]]) expresses the [[Buddhist]] notion that all [[compounded]] or [[conditioned]] [[phenomena]] (all things and [[experiences]]) are inconstant, unsteady, and [[impermanent]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Everything we can [[experience]] through our [[senses]] is made up of parts, and its [[existence]] is dependent on external [[conditions]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Everything is in [[constant]] flux, and so [[conditions]] and the thing itself are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Since [[nothing]] lasts, there is no [[inherent]] or fixed [[nature]] to any [[object]] or [[experience]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to the [[doctrine]] of [[impermanence]], [[life]] [[embodies]] this flux in the [[aging]] process, the cycle of [[rebirth]] ([[saṃsāra]]), and in any [[experience]] of loss. The [[doctrine]] asserts that because things are [[impermanent]], [[attachment]] to them is futile and leads to [[suffering]] ([[dukkha]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Suffering]] ([[Pāli]]: दुक्ख [[dukkha]]; [[Sanskrit]] दुःख [[duḥkha]]) is also a central {{Wiki|concept}} in [[Buddhism]].== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[word]] roughly corresponds to a number of terms in English including [[suffering]], [[pain]], {{Wiki|unsatisfactoriness}}, [[sorrow]], [[affliction]], [[anxiety]], [[dissatisfaction]], discomfort, anguish, [[stress]], [[misery]], and {{Wiki|frustration}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Although the term is often translated as "[[suffering]]", its [[philosophical]] meaning is more analogous to "disquietude" as in the [[condition]] of being disturbed. | ||
+ | |||
+ | As such, "[[suffering]]" is too narrow a translation with "negative [[emotional]] connotations" that can give the [[impression]] that the [[Buddhist]] [[view]] is {{Wiki|pessimistic}}, but [[Buddhism]] seeks to be neither {{Wiki|pessimistic}} nor {{Wiki|optimistic}}, but {{Wiki|realistic}}. In English-language [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|literature}} translated from [[Pāli]], "[[dukkha]]" is often left untranslated, so as to encompass its full range of meaning. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Not-self]] ([[Pāli]]: [[anatta]]; [[Sanskrit]]: [[anātman]]) is the third mark of [[existence]]. Upon careful {{Wiki|examination}}, one finds that no [[phenomenon]] is really "I" or "mine"; these [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] are in fact [[constructed]] by the [[mind]]. In the [[Nikayas anatta]] is not meant as a [[metaphysical]] [[assertion]], but as an approach for gaining [[release]] from [[suffering]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In fact, the [[Buddha]] rejected both of the [[metaphysical]] assertions "I have a [[Self]]" and "I have no [[Self]]" as {{Wiki|ontological}} [[views]] that bind one to [[suffering]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | When asked if the [[self]] was [[identical]] with the [[body]], the [[Buddha]] refused to answer. By analyzing the constantly changing [[physical]] and [[mental]] constituents ([[skandhas]]) of a [[person]] or [[object]], the [[practitioner]] comes to the conclusion that neither the respective parts nor the [[person]] as a whole comprise a [[self]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Dependent arising]]== | ||
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[[File:2709589.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:2709589.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The doctrine of [[pratītyasamutpāda]] (Sanskrit; Pali: paticcasamuppāda; Tibetan: rten.cing.'brel.bar.'byung.ba; Chinese: 緣起) is an important part of [[Buddhist | + | The [[doctrine]] of [[pratītyasamutpāda]] ([[Sanskrit]]; [[Pali]]: [[paticcasamuppāda]]; [[Tibetan]]: [[rten.cing.'brel.bar.'byung.ba]]; {{Wiki|Chinese}}: [[緣起]]) is an important part of [[Buddhist metaphysics]]. |
+ | |||
+ | It states that [[phenomena]] arise together in a mutually [[interdependent]] web of [[cause and effect]]. It is variously rendered into English as "[[dependent origination]]", "[[conditioned genesis]]", "[[dependent co-arising]]", "[[interdependent arising]]", or "contingency". | ||
+ | |||
+ | The best-known application of the {{Wiki|concept}} of [[pratītyasamutpāda]] is the scheme of [[Twelve Nidānas]] (from [[Pāli]] "[[nidāna]]" meaning "[[cause]], foundation, source or origin"), which explain the [[continuation]] of the cycle of [[suffering]] and [[rebirth]] ([[saṃsāra]]) in detail. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Twelve Nidānas]] describe a causal connection between the subsequent {{Wiki|characteristics}} or [[conditions]] of [[cyclic existence]], each one giving rise to the next: | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | [[Avidyā]]: [[ignorance]], specifically [[spiritual]] [[ignorance]] of the [[nature]] of [[reality]]; | ||
+ | [[Saṃskāras]]: literally [[formations]], explained as referring to [[karma]]; | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Vijñāna]]: [[consciousness]], specifically discriminative; | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Nāmarūpa]]: literally [[name]] and [[form]], referring to [[mind]] and [[body]]; | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Ṣaḍāyatana]]: the [[six sense bases]]: [[eye]], [[ear]], [[nose]], {{Wiki|tongue}}, [[body]] and [[mind]]-{{Wiki|organ}}; | ||
+ | [[Sparśa]]: variously translated [[contact]], [[impression]], {{Wiki|stimulation}} (by a [[sense object]]); | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Vedanā]]: usually translated [[feeling]]: this is the "{{Wiki|hedonic}} tone", i.e. whether something is [[pleasant]], [[unpleasant]] or [[neutral]]; | ||
+ | [[Tṛṣṇā]]: literally [[thirst]], but in [[Buddhism]] nearly always used to mean [[craving]]; | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Upādāna]]: [[clinging]] or [[grasping]]; the [[word]] also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of [[rebirth]]; | ||
+ | [[Bhava]]: literally being ([[existence]]) or becoming. (The [[Theravada]] explains this as having two meanings: [[karma]], which produces a new [[existence]], and the [[existence]] itself.); | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Jāti]]: literally [[birth]], but [[life]] is understood as starting at {{Wiki|conception}}; | ||
+ | [[Jarāmaraṇa]]: ([[old age]] and [[death]]) and also [[śokaparidevaduḥkhadaurmanasyopāyāsa]] ([[sorrow]], [[lamentation]], [[pain]], [[sadness]], and [[misery]]). | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
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[[File:01g.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:01g.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | [[Sentient beings]] always [[suffer]] throughout [[saṃsāra]], until they free themselves from this [[suffering]] by attaining [[Nirvana]]. Then the absence of the [[first Nidāna]] | + | [[Sentient beings]] always [[suffer]] throughout [[saṃsāra]], until they free themselves from this [[suffering]] by [[attaining]] [[Nirvana]]. Then the absence of the [[first Nidāna]] [[ignorance]] leads to the absence of the others. |
[[Emptiness]] | [[Emptiness]] | ||
− | [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]] received significant theoretical grounding from [[Nagarjuna]] (perhaps c. 150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the [[Mahayana]] tradition. [[Nagarjuna]]'s primary contribution to [[Buddhist philosophy]] was the systematic exposition of the concept of [[śūnyatā]], or "[[emptiness]]", widely attested in the [[Prajñāpāramitā | + | [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]] received significant {{Wiki|theoretical}} grounding from [[Nagarjuna]] (perhaps c. 150–250 CE), arguably the most influential [[scholar]] within the [[Mahayana]] [[tradition]]. |
+ | |||
+ | [[Nagarjuna]]'s primary contribution to [[Buddhist philosophy]] was the systematic [[exposition]] of the {{Wiki|concept}} of [[śūnyatā]], or "[[emptiness]]", widely attested in the [[Prajñāpāramitā sutras]] that emerged in his {{Wiki|era}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The {{Wiki|concept}} of [[emptiness]] brings together other key [[Buddhist]] [[doctrines]], particularly [[anatta]] and [[pratītyasamutpāda]] ([[dependent origination]]), to refute the [[metaphysics]] of [[Sarvastivada]] and [[Sautrantika]] ([[extinct]] non-[[Mahayana]] schools). | ||
+ | |||
+ | For [[Nagarjuna]], it is not merely [[sentient beings]] that are [[empty of]] [[ātman]]; all [[phenomena]] ([[dharmas]]) are without any [[svabhava]] (literally "[[own-nature]]" or "[[self-nature]]"), and thus without any underlying [[essence]]; | ||
+ | |||
+ | they are "[[empty]]" of being {{Wiki|independent}}; thus the [[Wikipedia:Heterodoxy|heterodox]] theories of [[svabhava]] circulating at the [[time]] were refuted on the basis of the [[doctrines]] of early [[Buddhism]]. [[Nagarjuna]]'s school of [[thought]] is known as the [[Mādhyamaka]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Some of the writings attributed to [[Nagarjuna]] made explicit references to [[Mahayana]] texts, but his [[philosophy]] was argued within the parameters set out by the [[agamas]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | He may have arrived at his positions from a [[desire]] to achieve a consistent {{Wiki|exegesis}} of the [[Buddha]]'s [[doctrine]] as recorded in the [[Canon]]. In the [[eyes]] of [[Nagarjuna]] the [[Buddha]] was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the [[Mādhyamaka]] system. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Sarvastivada]] teachings—which were criticized by [[Nāgārjuna]]—were reformulated by [[scholars]] such as [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga]] and were adapted into the [[Yogacara]] ([[Sanskrit]]: [[yoga]] practice) school. | ||
+ | |||
+ | While the [[Mādhyamaka]] school held that asserting the [[existence]] or [[non-existence]] of any ultimately {{Wiki|real}} thing was inappropriate, some exponents of [[Yogacara]] asserted that the [[mind]] and only the [[mind]] is ultimately {{Wiki|real}} (a [[doctrine]] known as [[cittamatra]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | Not all [[Yogacarins]] asserted that [[mind]] was truly [[existent]]; [[Vasubandhu]] and [[Asanga]] in particular did not. These two schools of [[thought]], in [[opposition]] or {{Wiki|synthesis}}, [[form]] the basis of subsequent [[Mahayana]] [[metaphysics]] in the Indo-Tibetan [[tradition]]. | ||
+ | |||
− | |||
[[File:2001.35.161.1-O.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:2001.35.161.1-O.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Besides [[emptiness]], [[Mahayana]] schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight ([[prajñāpāramitā]]) and Buddha-nature ([[tathāgatagarbha]]). There are conflicting interpretations of the [[tathāgatagarbha]] in [[Mahāyāna]] thought. The idea may be traced to [[Abhidharma]], and ultimately to statements of the [[Buddha]] in the [[Nikāyas]]. In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], according to the [[Sakya]] school, [[tathāgatagarbha]] is the inseparability of the clarity and [[emptiness]] of one's mind. In [[Nyingma]], [[tathāgatagarbha]] also generally refers to inseparability of the clarity and [[emptiness]] of one's [[mind]]. | + | Besides [[emptiness]], [[Mahayana]] schools often place {{Wiki|emphasis}} on the notions of perfected [[spiritual insight]] ([[prajñāpāramitā]]) and [[Buddha-nature]] ([[tathāgatagarbha]]). |
− | + | ||
− | + | There are conflicting interpretations of the [[tathāgatagarbha]] in [[Mahāyāna]] [[thought]]. The [[idea]] may be traced to [[Abhidharma]], and ultimately to statements of the [[Buddha]] in the [[Nikāyas]]. | |
+ | |||
+ | In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], according to the [[Sakya]] school, [[tathāgatagarbha]] is the {{Wiki|inseparability}} of the clarity and [[emptiness]] of one's [[mind]]. In [[Nyingma]], [[tathāgatagarbha]] also generally refers to {{Wiki|inseparability}} of the clarity and [[emptiness]] of one's [[mind]]. | ||
− | + | According to the [[Gelug]] school, it is the potential for [[sentient beings]] to [[awaken]] since they are [[empty]] (i.e. [[dependently originated]]). | |
− | [[Bodhi]] (Pāli and Sanskrit, in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of [[Awakening]] of [[arahants]]. [[Bodhi]] literally means "[[awakening]]", but it is more commonly translated into English as "[[enlightenment]]". In [[Early Buddhism]], [[bodhi]] carried a meaning synonymous to [[nirvana]], using only some different metaphors to describe the experience, which implies the extinction of [[raga]] ([[greed]], craving) [[dosa]] (hate, aversion) and [[moha]] ([[delusion]]). In the later school of [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]], the status of [[nirvana]] was downgraded in some scriptures, coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained [[nirvana]], and that one needed to attain [[bodhi]] to eradicate [[delusion]]: | + | According to the [[Jonang]] school, it refers to the innate qualities of the [[mind]] that expresses themselves as [[omniscience]] etc. when adventitious [[obscurations]] are removed. |
+ | |||
+ | The "[[Tathāgatagarbha Sutras]]" are a collection of [[Mahayana sutras]] that {{Wiki|present}} a unique model of [[Buddha-nature]]. | ||
+ | Even though this collection was generally ignored in [[India]], {{Wiki|East Asian}} [[Buddhism]] provides some significance to these texts. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Liberation]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Nirvana]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Nirvana]] ([[Sanskrit]]; [[Pali]]: "[[Nibbana]]") means "[[cessation]]", "[[extinction]]" (of [[craving]] and [[ignorance]] and therefore [[suffering]] and the cycle of involuntary [[rebirths]] ([[saṃsāra]])), "[[extinguished]]", "quieted", "[[calmed]]"; it is also known as "[[Awakening]]" or "[[Enlightenment]]" in the [[West]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The term for anybody who has achieved [[nirvana]], including the [[Buddha]], is [[arahant]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Bodhi]] ([[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]], in {{Wiki|devanagari}}: [[बॊधि]]) is a term applied to the [[experience]] of [[Awakening]] of [[arahants]]. [[Bodhi]] literally means "[[awakening]]", but it is more commonly translated into English as "[[enlightenment]]". | ||
+ | |||
+ | In [[Early Buddhism]], [[bodhi]] carried a meaning {{Wiki|synonymous}} to [[nirvana]], using only some different {{Wiki|metaphors}} to describe the [[experience]], which implies the [[extinction]] of [[raga]] ([[greed]], [[craving]]) [[dosa]] ([[hate]], [[aversion]]) and [[moha]] ([[delusion]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | In the later school of [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]], the {{Wiki|status}} of [[nirvana]] was downgraded in some [[scriptures]], coming to refer only to the [[extinction]] of [[greed]] and [[hate]], implying that [[delusion]] was still {{Wiki|present}} in one who [[attained]] [[nirvana]], and that one needed to attain [[bodhi]] to eradicate [[delusion]]: | ||
[[File:038f9e01a.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:038f9e01a.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | The term [[parinirvana]] is also encountered in [[Buddhism]], and this generally refers to the complete [[nirvana]] attained by the arahant at the moment of death, when the physical body expires. | + | An important [[development]] in the [[Mahayana]] [was] that it came to separate [[nirvana]] from [[bodhi]] ('[[awakening]]' to the [[truth]], [[Enlightenment]]), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d). |
− | Buddhas | + | |
+ | Originally [[nirvana]] and [[bodhi]] refer to the same thing; they merely use different {{Wiki|metaphors}} for the [[experience]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | But the [[Mahayana]] [[tradition]] separated them and considered that [[nirvana]] referred only to the [[extinction]] of [[craving]] ([[passion]] and [[hatred]]), with the resultant escape from the cycle of [[rebirth]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | This [[interpretation]] ignores the third [[fire]], [[delusion]]: the [[extinction]] of [[delusion]] is of course in the early texts [[identical]] with what can be positively expressed as [[gnosis]], [[Enlightenment]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Richard F. Gombrich]], [[How Buddhism Began]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Therefore, according to [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]], the [[arahant]] has [[attained]] only [[nirvana]], thus still being [[subject]] to [[delusion]], while the [[bodhisattva]] not only achieves [[nirvana]] but full [[liberation]] from [[delusion]] as well. | ||
+ | |||
+ | He thus attains [[bodhi]] and becomes a [[buddha]]. In [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]], [[bodhi]] and [[nirvana]] carry the same meaning as in the early texts, that of being freed from [[greed]], [[hate]] and [[delusion]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The term [[parinirvana]] is also encountered in [[Buddhism]], and this generally refers to the complete [[nirvana]] [[attained]] by the [[arahant]] at the [[moment]] of [[death]], when the [[physical body]] expires. | ||
+ | [[Buddhas]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | According to [[Buddhist traditions]] a [[Buddha]] is a fully [[awakened]] being who has completely [[purified]] his [[mind]] of the [[three poisons]] of [[desire]], [[aversion]] and [[ignorance]]. | ||
+ | A [[Buddha]] is no longer [[bound]] by [[Samsara]], and has ended the [[suffering]] which unawakened [[people]] [[experience]] in [[life]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Buddhists]] do not consider [[Siddhartha Gautama]] to have been the only [[Buddha]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Pali Canon]] refers to many previous ones (see List of the [[28 Buddhas]]), while the [[Mahayana tradition]] additionally has many [[Buddhas]] of [[celestial]], rather than historical, origin (see [[Amitabha]] or [[Vairocana]] as examples, for lists of many thousands [[Buddha]] names see [[Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō]] numbers 439–448). | ||
+ | |||
+ | A common [[Theravada]] and [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhist]] [[belief]] is that the next [[Buddha]] will be one named [[Maitreya]] ([[Pali]]: [[Metteyya]]). | ||
+ | according to [[Theravada]] | ||
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[[File:294076532211.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:294076532211.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | In Theravada doctrine, a person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality; such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas. | + | In [[Theravada]] [[doctrine]], a [[person]] may [[awaken]] from the "[[sleep]] of [[ignorance]]" by directly [[realizing]] the [[true nature]] of [[reality]]; such [[people]] are called [[arahants]] and occasionally [[buddhas]]. |
− | + | After numerous lifetimes of [[spiritual]] striving, they have reached the end of the cycle of [[rebirth]], no longer [[reincarnating]] as [[human]], [[animal]], [[ghost]], or other being. | |
− | |||
− | |||
− | Bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate, and delusion. In attaining bodhi, the arahant has overcome these obstacles. As a further distinction, the extinction of only hatred and greed (in the sensory context) with some residue of delusion, is called anagami. | + | The commentaries to the [[Pali Canon]] classify these [[awakened]] [[beings]] into three types: |
− | + | ||
− | The | + | <poem> |
+ | [[Sammasambuddha]], usually just called the [[Buddha]], who discovers the [[truth]] by himself and teaches the [[path]] to [[awakening]] to others | ||
+ | [[Paccekabuddha]], who discovers the [[truth]] by himself but lacks the skill to teach others | ||
+ | [[Savakabuddha]], who receive the [[truth]] directly or indirectly from a [[Sammasambuddha]] | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Bodhi]] and [[nirvana]] carry the same meaning, that of being freed from [[craving]], [[hate]], and [[delusion]]. In [[attaining]] [[bodhi]], the [[arahant]] has overcome these {{Wiki|obstacles}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | As a further {{Wiki|distinction}}, the [[extinction]] of only [[hatred]] and [[greed]] (in the sensory context) with some residue of [[delusion]], is called [[anagami]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | In the [[Mahayana]], the [[Buddha]] tends not to be viewed as merely [[human]], but as the [[earthly]] projection of a [[beginningless]] and [[endless]], {{Wiki|omnipresent}} being (see [[Dharmakaya]]) [[beyond]] the range and reach of [[thought]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Moreover, in certain [[Mahayana sutras]], the [[Buddha]], [[Dharma]] and [[Sangha]] are viewed [[essentially]] as One: all three are seen as the [[eternal Buddha]] himself. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Buddha's death]] is seen as an [[illusion]], he is living on in other planes of [[existence]], and [[monks]] are therefore permitted to offer "new [[truths]]" based on his input. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Mahayana]] also differs from [[Theravada]] in its {{Wiki|concept}} of [[śūnyatā]] (that ultimately [[nothing]] has [[existence]]), and in its [[belief]] in [[bodhisattvas]] ([[enlightened]] [[people]] who [[vow]] to continue being [[reborn]] until all [[beings]] can be [[enlightened]]). | ||
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[[File:100 1617.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:100 1617.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings. | + | [[Celestial]] [[Buddhas]] are {{Wiki|individuals}} who no longer [[exist]] on the material [[plane of existence]], but who still aid in the [[enlightenment]] of all [[beings]]. |
+ | |||
+ | [[Nirvana]] came to refer only to the [[extinction]] of [[greed]] and [[hate]], implying that [[delusion]] was still {{Wiki|present}} in one who [[attained]] [[Nirvana]]. [[Bodhi]] became a higher [[attainment]] that eradicates [[delusion]] entirely. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Thus, the [[Arahant]] attains [[Nirvana]] but not [[Bodhi]], thus still being [[subject]] to [[delusion]], while the [[Buddha]] attains [[Bodhi]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The method of self-exertion or "self-power"—without reliance on an external force or being—stands in contrast to another major [[form]] of [[Buddhism]], [[Pure Land]], which is characterized by utmost [[trust]] in the salvific "[[other-power]]" of [[Amitabha Buddha]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Pure Land Buddhism]] is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated [[manifestation]] of [[Buddhism]] and centres upon the conviction that [[faith]] in [[Amitabha Buddha]] and the [[chanting]] of homage to his [[name]] {{Wiki|liberates}} one at [[death]] into the [[Blissful]] ([[安樂]]), [[Pure Land]] ([[淨土]]) of [[Amitabha Buddha]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | This [[Buddhic]] [[realm]] is variously construed as a foretaste of [[Nirvana]], or as [[essentially]] [[Nirvana]] itself. | ||
− | + | The great [[vow]] of [[Amitabha Buddha]] to rescue all [[beings]] from [[samsaric]] [[suffering]] is viewed within [[Pure Land Buddhism]] as universally efficacious, if only one has [[faith]] in the power of that [[vow]] or [[chants]] his [[name]]. | |
+ | [[Buddha]] eras | ||
− | |||
− | |||
− | Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism | + | [[Buddhists]] believe [[Gautama Buddha]] was the first to achieve [[enlightenment]] in this [[Buddha]] {{Wiki|era}} and is therefore credited with the establishment of [[Buddhism]]. |
− | In addition, Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes. A Theravada commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this world element, and not at all in others. The understandings of this matter reflect widely differing interpretations of basic terms, such as "world realm", between the various schools of Buddhism. | + | A [[Buddha]] {{Wiki|era}} is the stretch of history during which [[people]] remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known [[Buddha]]. |
+ | |||
+ | This [[Buddha]] {{Wiki|era}} will end when all the [[knowledge]], {{Wiki|evidence}} and teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] have vanished. This [[belief]] therefore maintains that many [[Buddha]] eras have started and ended throughout the course of [[human existence]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Gautama Buddha]], then, is the [[Buddha]] of this {{Wiki|era}}, who [[taught]] directly or indirectly to all other [[Buddhas]] in it (see types of [[Buddhas]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | In addition, [[Mahayana Buddhists]] believe there are {{Wiki|innumerable}} other [[Buddhas]] in other [[universes]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | A [[Theravada]] commentary says that [[Buddhas]] arise one at a [[time]] in this [[world]] [[element]], and not at all in others. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The understandings of this {{Wiki|matter}} reflect widely differing interpretations of basic terms, such as "[[world]] [[realm]]", between the various [[schools of Buddhism]]. | ||
[[File:429medium.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:429medium.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
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− | Bodhisattva means "enlightenment being", and generally refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood. Traditionally, a bodhisattva is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. Theravada Buddhism primarily uses the term in relation to Gautama Buddha's previous existences, but has traditionally acknowledged and respected the bodhisattva path as well. | + | The [[idea]] of the {{Wiki|decline}} and [[gradual]] [[disappearance]] of the [[teaching]] has been influential in {{Wiki|East Asian}} [[Buddhism]]. [[Pure Land Buddhism]] holds that it has declined to the point where few are capable of following the [[path]], so it may be best to rely on the power of the [[Amitabha Buddha]]. |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Bodhisattvas]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Bodhisattva]] means "[[enlightenment]] being", and generally refers to one who is on the [[path]] to [[buddhahood]]. [[Traditionally]], a [[bodhisattva]] is anyone who, motivated by [[great compassion]], has generated [[bodhicitta]], which is a spontaneous wish to attain [[Buddhahood]] for the [[benefit]] of all [[sentient beings]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Theravada Buddhism]] primarily uses the term in [[relation]] to [[Gautama]] [[Buddha's]] previous [[existences]], but has [[traditionally]] [[acknowledged]] and respected the [[bodhisattva]] [[path]] as well. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | According to Jan Nattier, the term [[Mahāyāna]] ("[[Great Vehicle]]") was originally even an {{Wiki|honorary}} {{Wiki|synonym}} for [[Bodhisattvayāna]], or the "[[Bodhisattva]] [[Vehicle]]." | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra]], an early and important [[Mahāyāna]] text, contains a simple and brief [[definition]] for the term [[bodhisattva]], and this [[definition]] is the following: | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Because he has [[enlightenment]] as his [[aim]], a [[bodhisattva-mahāsattva]] is so called. | ||
− | |||
− | + | [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] encourages everyone to become [[bodhisattvas]] and to take the [[bodhisattva vows]]. With these [[vows]], one makes the promise to work for the [[complete enlightenment]] of all [[beings]] by practicing [[six perfections]] (Skt. [[pāramitā]]). | |
− | + | According to the [[Mahāyāna]] teachings, these [[perfections]] are: giving, [[discipline]], [[forbearance]], [[effort]], [[meditation]], and [[transcendent wisdom]]. | |
[[File:10d2fd63.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:10d2fd63.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | |||
− | + | A famous saying by the 8th-century [[Indian]] [[Buddhist]] scholar-saint [[Shantideva]], which the [[Dalai Lama]] often cites as his favourite verse, summarizes the [[Bodhisattva's]] [[intention]] ([[Bodhicitta]]) as follows: | |
+ | |||
+ | For as long as [[space]] endures, and for as long as [[living beings]] remain, until then may I too abide to dispel the [[misery]] of the [[world]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Practice]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | =[[Devotion]]= | ||
− | |||
− | |||
+ | [[Devotion]] is an important part of the practice of most [[Buddhists]]. Devotional practices include [[bowing]], [[offerings]], [[pilgrimage]], and [[chanting]]. In [[Pure Land Buddhism]], [[devotion]] to the [[Buddha Amitabha]] is the main practice. In [[Nichiren Buddhism]], [[devotion]] to the [[Lotus Sutra]] is the main practice. | ||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | Buddhism traditionally incorporates states of meditative absorption (Pali: jhāna; Skt: dhyāna). The most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha. One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition. The difference between the Buddha's teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking. Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness. | + | ==[[Yoga]]== |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Statue of the [[Buddha]] in [[meditation]] position, Haw [[Phra]] Kaew, {{Wiki|Vientiane}}, [[Laos]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Buddhism]] [[traditionally]] incorporates states of [[meditative]] [[absorption]] ([[Pali]]: [[jhāna]]; Skt: [[dhyāna]]). The most {{Wiki|ancient}} sustained expression of [[yogic]] [[ideas]] is found in the early [[sermons]] of the [[Buddha]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | One key innovative [[teaching]] of the [[Buddha]] was that [[meditative]] [[absorption]] must be combined with liberating [[cognition]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The difference between the [[Buddha's teaching]] and the [[yoga]] presented in early [[Brahminic]] texts is striking. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Meditative]] states alone are not an end, for according to the [[Buddha]], even the [[highest]] [[meditative]] [[state]] is not liberating. Instead of [[attaining]] a complete [[cessation]] of [[thought]], some sort of [[mental]] [[activity]] must take place: a liberating [[cognition]], based on the practice of [[mindful]] [[awareness]]. | ||
[[File:668137.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:668137.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | |||
− | Religious knowledge or "vision" was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the Buddhist fold. According to the Samaññaphala Sutta, this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of "meditation" coupled with the perfection of "discipline" (Pali sīla; Skt. śīla). Some of the Buddha's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of "transcendent wisdom" (Pali paññā; Skt. prajñā) was original. | + | [[Meditation]] was an aspect of the practice of the [[yogis]] in the centuries preceding the [[Buddha]]. The [[Buddha]] built upon the [[yogis]]' [[concern]] with {{Wiki|introspection}} and developed their [[meditative]] techniques, but rejected their theories of [[liberation]]. |
+ | |||
+ | In [[Buddhism]], [[mindfulness]] and clear [[awareness]] are to be developed at all times; in pre-Buddhist [[yogic]] practices there is no such injunction. | ||
+ | |||
+ | A [[yogi]] in the [[Brahmanical]] [[tradition]] is not to practice while defecating, for example, while a [[Buddhist]] [[monastic]] should do so. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Religious]] [[knowledge]] or "[[vision]]" was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the [[Buddhist]] fold. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to the [[Samaññaphala Sutta]], this sort of [[vision]] arose for the [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|adept}} as a result of the [[perfection]] of "[[meditation]]" coupled with the [[perfection]] of "[[discipline]]" ([[Pali]] [[sīla]]; Skt. [[śīla]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | Some of the [[Buddha's]] [[meditative]] techniques were shared with other [[traditions]] of his day, but the [[idea]] that [[ethics]] are [[causally]] related to the [[attainment]] of "[[transcendent wisdom]]" ([[Pali]] [[paññā]]; Skt. [[prajñā]]) was original. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Buddhist texts]] are probably the earliest describing [[meditation]] techniques. They describe [[meditative]] practices and states that existed before the [[Buddha]] as well as those first developed within [[Buddhism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Two [[Upanishads]] written after the rise of [[Buddhism]] do contain full-fledged descriptions of [[yoga]] as a means to [[liberation]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
− | + | While there is no convincing {{Wiki|evidence}} for [[meditation]] in pre-Buddhist early [[Brahminic]] texts, Wynne argues that [[formless]] [[meditation]] originated in the [[Brahminic]] or [[Shramanic]] [[tradition]], based on strong parallels between [[Upanishadic]] [[cosmological]] statements and the [[meditative]] goals of the two [[teachers]] of the [[Buddha]] as recorded in the early [[Buddhist texts]]. | |
− | + | He mentions less likely possibilities as well. Having argued that the [[cosmological]] statements in the [[Upanishads]] also reflect a [[contemplative]] [[tradition]], he argues that the [[Nasadiya Sukta]] contains {{Wiki|evidence}} for a [[contemplative]] [[tradition]], even as early as the late Rig {{Wiki|Vedic}} period. | |
− | Refuge in the Three Jewels | + | |
− | Relic depicting footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE, Gandhāra. | + | |
+ | ==[[Refuge]] in the [[Three Jewels]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Relic]] depicting [[footprint of the Buddha]] with [[Dharmachakra]] and [[triratna]], 1st century CE, [[Gandhāra]]. | ||
[[File:20ea z.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:20ea z.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: tri-ratna, Pāli: ti-ratana) as the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf. Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. | + | [[Traditionally]], the first step in most [[Buddhist]] schools requires [[taking refuge]] in the [[Three Jewels]] ([[Sanskrit]]: [[tri-ratna]], [[Pāli]]: [[ti-ratana]]) as the foundation of one's [[religious]] practice. |
+ | |||
+ | The practice of [[taking refuge]] on behalf of young or even {{Wiki|unborn}} children is mentioned in the [[Majjhima Nikaya]], [[recognized]] by most [[scholars]] as an early text (cf. {{Wiki|Infant}} baptism). [[Tibetan Buddhism]] sometimes adds a fourth [[refuge]], in the [[lama]]. | ||
− | + | In [[Mahayana]], the [[person]] who chooses the [[bodhisattva]] [[path]] makes a [[vow]] or pledge, considered the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] expression of [[compassion]]. | |
− | + | In [[Mahayana]], too, the [[Three Jewels]] are [[perceived]] as possessed of an [[eternal]] and [[unchanging]] [[essence]] and as having an irreversible effect: "The [[Three Jewels]] have the [[quality]] of [[excellence]]. | |
− | |||
− | + | Just as {{Wiki|real}} [[jewels]] never change their {{Wiki|faculty}} and [[goodness]], whether praised or reviled, so are the [[Three Jewels]] ([[Refuges]]), because they have an [[eternal]] and immutable [[essence]]. These [[Three Jewels]] bring a [[fruition]] that is changeless, for once one has reached [[Buddhahood]], there is no possibility of falling back to [[suffering]]." | |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==The [[Three Jewels]] are:== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==The [[Buddha]].== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | This is a title for those who have [[attained]] [[Nirvana]]. See also the [[Tathāgata]] and [[Gautama Buddha]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Buddha]] could also be represented as a {{Wiki|concept}} instead of a specific [[person]]: the [[perfect wisdom]] that [[understands]] [[Dharma]] and sees [[reality]] in its true [[form]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In [[Mahayana Buddhism]], the [[Buddha]] can be viewed as the supreme [[Refuge]]: "[[Buddha]] is the Unique [[Absolute]] [[Refuge]]. [[Buddha]] is the Imperishable, [[Eternal]], [[Indestructible]] and [[Absolute]] [[Refuge]]." | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | == The [[Dharma]].== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The teachings or law of [[nature]] as expounded by the [[Gautama Buddha]]. It can also, especially in [[Mahayana]], connote the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] and sustaining [[Reality]] that is [[inseparable]] from the [[Buddha]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Further, from some [[Mahayana]] perspectives, the [[Dharma]] [[embodied]] in the [[form]] of a great [[sutra]] ([[Buddhic]] [[scripture]]) can replace the need for a personal [[teacher]] and can be a direct and spontaneous gateway into [[Truth]] ([[Dharma]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | This is especially said to be the case with the [[Lotus Sutra]]. Dr. Hiroshi Kanno writes of this [[view]] of the [[Lotus Sutra]]: "it is a [[Dharma-gate]] of [[sudden enlightenment]] proper to the [[Great Vehicle]]; it is a [[Dharma-gate]] whereby one awakens spontaneously, without resorting to a [[teacher]]". | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==The [[Sangha]].== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Those who have [[attained]] to any of the [[Four stages of enlightenment]], or simply the congregation of [[monastic]] practitioners. | ||
[[File:111.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:111.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | According to the [[scriptures]], [[Gautama Buddha]] presented himself as a model. The [[Dharma]] offers a [[refuge]] by providing guidelines for the alleviation of [[suffering]] and the [[attainment]] of [[Nirvana]]. | |
+ | |||
+ | The [[Sangha]] is considered to provide a [[refuge]] by preserving the [[Wikipedia:Authenticity|authentic]] teachings of the [[Buddha]] and providing further examples that the [[truth]] of the [[Buddha's teachings]] is attainable. | ||
+ | [[Buddhist]] [[ethics]] | ||
− | |||
− | Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several levels of sila, which correspond to "basic morality" (five precepts), "basic morality with asceticism" (eight precepts), "novice monkhood" (ten precepts) and "monkhood" (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts, which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which add basic asceticism. | + | [[Śīla]] ([[Sanskrit]]) or [[sīla]] ([[Pāli]]) is usually translated into English as "[[virtuous]] {{Wiki|behavior}}", "[[morality]]", "[[ethics]]" or "[[precept]]". |
+ | |||
+ | It is an [[action]] committed through the [[body]], [[speech]], or [[mind]], and involves an intentional [[effort]]. It is one of the three practices ([[sila]], [[samadhi]], and panya) and the second [[pāramitā]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | It refers to [[moral]] [[purity]] of [[thought]], [[word]], and [[deed]]. The [[four conditions]] of [[śīla]] are {{Wiki|chastity}}, [[calmness]], quiet, and extinguishment. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Śīla]] is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhāvana ([[Meditative]] [[cultivation]]) or [[mind]] [[cultivation]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Keeping the [[precepts]] promotes not only the [[peace]] of [[mind]] of the cultivator, which is internal, but also [[peace]] in the {{Wiki|community}}, which is external. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to the [[Law of Karma]], keeping the [[precepts]] are [[meritorious]] and it acts as [[causes]] that would bring about [[peaceful]] and [[happy]] effects. Keeping these [[precepts]] keeps the cultivator from [[rebirth]] in the four woeful [[realms]] of [[existence]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Śīla]] refers to overall {{Wiki|principles}} of [[ethical]] {{Wiki|behavior}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | There are several levels of [[sila]], which correspond to "basic [[morality]]" ([[five precepts]]), "basic [[morality]] with {{Wiki|asceticism}}" ([[eight precepts]]), "[[novice]] [[monkhood]]" ([[ten precepts]]) and "[[monkhood]]" ([[Vinaya]] or [[Patimokkha]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Lay people]] generally undertake to [[live]] by the [[five precepts]], which are common to all [[Buddhist]] schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the [[eight precepts]], which add basic {{Wiki|asceticism}}. | ||
[[File:6fe537d4c770.jpeg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:6fe537d4c770.jpeg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | |||
− | To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms), or ahimsā; | + | The [[five precepts]] are [[training rules]] in order to [[live]] a better [[life]] in which one is [[happy]], without worries, and can [[meditate]] well: |
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | To refrain from taking [[life]] ([[non-violence]] towards [[sentient]] {{Wiki|life forms}}), or [[ahimsā]]; | ||
To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft); | To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft); | ||
− | To refrain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct; | + | To refrain from {{Wiki|sensual}} (including {{Wiki|sexual}}) {{Wiki|misconduct}}; |
− | To refrain from lying (speaking truth always); | + | To refrain from {{Wiki|lying}} ({{Wiki|speaking}} [[truth]] always); |
− | To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (specifically, drugs and alcohol). | + | To refrain from [[intoxicants]] which lead to loss of [[mindfulness]] (specifically, [[drugs]] and [[alcohol]]). |
+ | </poem> | ||
− | |||
− | + | The [[precepts]] are not formulated as imperatives, but as [[training rules]] that [[laypeople]] undertake voluntarily to facilitate practice. | |
− | 6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (eat only from sunrise to noon); | + | In [[Buddhist]] [[thought]], the [[cultivation]] of [[dana]] and [[ethical]] conduct themselves refine [[consciousness]] to such a level that [[rebirth]] in one of the lower [[heavens]] is likely, even if there is no further [[Buddhist practice]]. There is [[nothing]] improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of [[attainment]]. |
− | 7. To refrain from dancing and playing music, wearing jewelry and cosmetics, attending shows and other performances; | + | |
+ | In the [[eight precepts]], the [[third precept]] on {{Wiki|sexual}} {{Wiki|misconduct}} is made more strict, and becomes a [[precept]] of [[celibacy]]. The three additional [[precepts]] are: | ||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | 6. To refrain from eating at the wrong [[time]] (eat only from sunrise to noon); | ||
+ | 7. To refrain from [[dancing]] and playing {{Wiki|music}}, wearing jewelry and [[cosmetics]], attending shows and other performances; | ||
8. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats and bedding. | 8. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats and bedding. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
[[File:29e.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:29e.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | The complete list of ten precepts may be observed by laypeople for short periods. For the complete list, the seventh precept is partitioned into two, and a tenth added: | + | The complete list of [[ten precepts]] may be observed by [[laypeople]] for short periods. For the complete list, the seventh [[precept]] is partitioned into two, and a tenth added: |
− | 6. To refrain from taking food at an unseasonable time, that is after the mid-day meal; | + | <poem> |
− | 7. To refrain from dancing, music, singing and unseemly shows; | + | 6. To refrain from taking [[food]] at an unseasonable [[time]], that is after the mid-day meal; |
− | 8. To refrain from the use of garlands, perfumes, ointments, and from things that tend to beautify and adorn (the person); | + | 7. To refrain from [[dancing]], {{Wiki|music}}, singing and unseemly shows; |
+ | 8. To refrain from the use of garlands, [[perfumes]], ointments, and from things that tend to beautify and adorn (the [[person]]); | ||
9. To refrain from (using) high and luxurious seats (and beds); | 9. To refrain from (using) high and luxurious seats (and beds); | ||
− | 10. To refrain from accepting gold and silver; | + | 10. To refrain from accepting {{Wiki|gold}} and {{Wiki|silver}}; |
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Monastic life]]== | ||
+ | |||
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− | + | [[Buddhist]] [[monks]] performing a {{Wiki|ceremony}} in {{Wiki|Hangzhou}}, [[China]] | |
− | Regarding the monastic rules, the Buddha constantly reminds his hearers that it is the spirit that counts. On the other hand, the rules themselves are designed to assure a satisfying life, and provide a perfect springboard for the higher attainments. Monastics are instructed by the Buddha to live as "islands unto themselves". In this sense, living life as the vinaya prescribes it is, as one scholar puts it: "more than merely a means to an end: it is very nearly the end in itself." | + | [[Vinaya]] is the specific [[moral]] code for [[monks and nuns]]. It includes the [[Patimokkha]], a set of 227 {{Wiki|rules}} for [[monks]] in the [[Theravadin]] recension. |
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+ | The precise content of the [[vinayapitaka]] ([[scriptures]] on [[Vinaya]]) differs slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the {{Wiki|degree}} of adherence to [[Vinaya]]. | ||
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+ | [[Novice-monks]] use the [[ten precepts]], which are the basic [[precepts]] for [[monastics]]. | ||
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+ | Regarding the [[monastic rules]], the [[Buddha]] constantly reminds his hearers that it is the [[spirit]] that counts. On the other hand, the {{Wiki|rules}} themselves are designed to assure a satisfying [[life]], and provide a {{Wiki|perfect}} springboard for the higher [[attainments]]. | ||
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+ | [[Monastics]] are instructed by the [[Buddha]] to [[live]] as "islands unto themselves". In this [[sense]], living [[life]] as the [[vinaya]] prescribes it is, as one [[scholar]] puts it: "more than merely a means to an end: it is very nearly the end in itself." | ||
[[File:6a.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:6a.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
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− | Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena. According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, samatha meditation (Sanskrit: śamatha) and vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā) | + | In Eastern [[Buddhism]], there is also a {{Wiki|distinctive}} [[Vinaya]] and [[ethics]] contained within the [[Mahayana]] [[Brahmajala Sutra]] (not to be confused with the [[Pali]] text of that [[name]]) for [[Bodhisattvas]], where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and [[vegetarianism]] is actively encouraged (see [[vegetarianism]] in [[Buddhism]]). |
− | Samādhi (meditative cultivation): samatha meditation | + | |
− | + | In [[Japan]], this has almost completely displaced the [[monastic vinaya]], and allows {{Wiki|clergy}} to marry. | |
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+ | ==[[Meditation]]== | ||
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+ | [[Buddhist meditation]] is fundamentally concerned with two themes: [[transforming]] the [[mind]] and using it to explore itself and other [[phenomena]]. According to [[Theravada Buddhism]] the [[Buddha]] [[taught]] two types of [[meditation]], [[samatha]] [[meditation]] ([[Sanskrit]]: | ||
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+ | ==[[śamatha]]) and [[vipassanā meditation]] ([[Sanskrit]]:== | ||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[vipaśyanā]])== | ||
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+ | In [[Chinese Buddhism]], these [[exist]] (translated [[chih]] [[kuan]]), but [[Chán]] ([[Zen]]) [[meditation]] is more popular. | ||
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+ | According to [[Peter Harvey]], whenever [[Buddhism]] has been healthy, not only [[monks]], [[nuns]], and [[married]] [[lamas]], but also more committed [[lay people]] have practiced [[meditation]]. According to Routledge's {{Wiki|Encyclopedia}} of [[Buddhism]], in contrast, throughout most of [[Buddhist]] history before {{Wiki|modern}} times, serious [[meditation]] by [[lay people]] has been unusual. The {{Wiki|evidence}} of the early texts suggests that at the [[time]] of the [[Buddha]], many {{Wiki|male}} and {{Wiki|female}} lay practitioners did practice [[meditation]], some even to the point of proficiency in all eight [[jhānas]] (see the next section regarding these). | ||
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+ | ==[[Samādhi]] ([[meditative cultivation]]): [[samatha meditation]]== | ||
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− | Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna, Sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight. | + | |
+ | In the [[language]] of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], [[samyaksamādhi]] is "[[right concentration]]". | ||
+ | |||
+ | The primary means of [[cultivating]] [[samādhi]] is [[meditation]]. Upon [[development]] of [[samādhi]], one's [[mind]] becomes [[purified]] of [[defilement]], [[calm]], [[tranquil]], and {{Wiki|luminous}}. | ||
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+ | Once the [[meditator]] achieves a strong and powerful [[concentration]] ([[jhāna]], [[Sanskrit]] [[ध्यान]] [[dhyāna]]), his [[mind]] is ready to penetrate and gain [[insight]] ([[vipassanā]]) into the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[nature]] of [[reality]], eventually obtaining [[release]] from all [[suffering]]. | ||
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+ | The [[cultivation]] of [[mindfulness]] is [[essential]] to [[mental concentration]], which is needed to achieve [[insight]]. | ||
[[File:13sd.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:13sd.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
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− | In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to knowledge (jñāna; Pāli ñāṇa) and understanding (prajñā Pāli paññā), and thus can lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna). When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only understanding (prajñā or vipassana) eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also states that Arahants abide in order to rest. | + | [[Samatha]] [[meditation]] starts from being [[mindful]] of an [[object]] or [[idea]], which is expanded to one's [[body]], [[mind]] and entire surroundings, leading to a [[state]] of total [[concentration]] and [[tranquility]] ([[jhāna]]) |
− | In Theravāda | + | |
+ | There are many variations in the style of [[meditation]], from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to [[chanting]] or walking. | ||
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+ | The most common method of [[meditation]] is to [[concentrate]] on one's [[breath]] ([[anapanasati]]), because this practice can lead to both [[samatha]] and [[vipassana]]'. | ||
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+ | In [[Buddhist practice]], it is said that while [[samatha]] [[meditation]] can [[calm]] the [[mind]], only [[vipassanā]] [[meditation]] can reveal how the [[mind]] was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to [[knowledge]] ([[jñāna]]; | ||
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+ | [[Pāli]] [[ñāṇa]]) and [[understanding]] ([[prajñā]] [[Pāli]] [[paññā]]), and thus can lead to [[nirvāṇa]] ([[Pāli]] [[nibbāna]]). | ||
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+ | When one is in [[jhana]], all [[defilements]] are suppressed temporarily. Only [[understanding]] ([[prajñā]] or [[vipassana]]) eradicates the [[defilements]] completely. [[Jhanas]] are also states that [[Arahants]] abide in order to rest. | ||
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+ | ==In [[Theravāda]]== | ||
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+ | In [[Theravāda Buddhism]], the [[cause]] of [[human existence]] and [[suffering]] is identified as [[craving]], which carries with it the various [[defilements]]. | ||
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+ | These various [[defilements]] are [[traditionally]] summed up as [[greed]], [[hatred]] and [[delusion]]. These are believed deeply rooted [[afflictions]] of the [[mind]] that create [[suffering]] and [[stress]]. | ||
− | + | To be free from [[suffering]] and [[stress]], these [[defilements]] must be permanently uprooted through internal [[investigation]], analyzing, experiencing, and [[understanding]] of the [[true nature]] of those [[defilements]] by using [[jhāna]], a technique of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. | |
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− | Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination, The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining nirvāṇa, through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha (unsatisfactoriness), anicca (impermanence) and anatta (not-self). Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six pāramitās of the Mahayana. | + | It then leads the [[meditator]] to realize the [[Four Noble Truths]], [[Enlightenment]] and [[Nibbana]]. [[Nibbana]] is the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] goal of [[Theravadins]]. |
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+ | ==[[Prajñā]] ([[Wisdom]]): [[vipassana meditation]]== | ||
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+ | [[Prajñā]] ([[Sanskrit]]) or [[paññā]] ([[Pāli]]) means [[wisdom]] that is based on a [[realization]] of [[dependent origination]], | ||
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+ | The [[Four Noble Truths]] and the [[three marks of existence]]. [[Prajñā]] is the [[wisdom]] that is able to extinguish [[afflictions]] and bring about [[bodhi]]. | ||
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+ | It is spoken of as the [[principal]] means of [[attaining]] [[nirvāṇa]], through its [[revelation]] of the [[true nature]] of all things as [[dukkha]] ({{Wiki|unsatisfactoriness}}), [[anicca]] ([[impermanence]]) and [[anatta]] ({{Wiki|not-self}}). [[Prajñā]] is also listed as the sixth of the [[six pāramitās]] of the [[Mahayana]]. | ||
[[File:143kl.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:143kl.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
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− | Zen Buddhism (禅), pronounced Chán in Chinese, seon in Korean or zen in Japanese (derived from the Sanskrit term dhyāna, meaning "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China, Korea and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation. Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth. | + | Initially, [[prajñā]] is [[attained]] at a {{Wiki|conceptual}} level by means of listening to [[sermons]] ([[dharma]] talks), reading, studying, and sometimes reciting [[Buddhist texts]] and engaging in {{Wiki|discourse}}. Once the {{Wiki|conceptual}} [[understanding]] is [[attained]], it is applied to daily [[life]] so that each [[Buddhist]] can verify the [[truth]] of the [[Buddha's teaching]] at a {{Wiki|practical}} level. |
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+ | Notably, one could in {{Wiki|theory}} attain [[Nirvana]] at any point of practice, whether deep in [[meditation]], listening to a {{Wiki|sermon}}, conducting the business of one's daily [[life]], or any other [[activity]]. | ||
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+ | ==[[Zen]]== | ||
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+ | [[Zen Buddhism]] ([[禅]]), pronounced [[Chán]] in {{Wiki|Chinese}}, [[seon]] in [[Korean]] or [[zen]] in [[Japanese]] (derived from the [[Sanskrit]] term [[dhyāna]], meaning "[[meditation]]") is a [[form]] of [[Buddhism]] that became popular in [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]] and that lays special {{Wiki|emphasis}} on [[meditation]]. | ||
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+ | [[Zen]] places less {{Wiki|emphasis}} on [[scriptures]] than some other [[forms]] of [[Buddhism]] and prefers to focus on direct [[spiritual]] breakthroughs to [[truth]]. | ||
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+ | [[Zen Buddhism]] is divided into two main schools: [[Rinzai]] ([[臨済宗]]) and [[Sōtō]] ([[曹洞宗]]), the former greatly favouring the use in [[meditation]] on the [[koan]] ([[公案]], a [[meditative]] riddle or puzzle) as a device for [[spiritual]] break-through, and the [[latter]] (while certainly employing [[koans]]) focusing more on [[shikantaza]] or "just sitting". | ||
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+ | [[Zen]] [[Buddhist teaching]] is often full of [[paradox]], in order to loosen the [[grip]] of the [[ego]] and to facilitate the [[penetration]] into the [[realm]] of the [[True Self]] or [[Formless]] [[Self]], which is equated with the [[Buddha]] himself. | ||
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+ | According to [[Zen master]] [[Kosho]] Uchiyama, when [[thoughts]] and fixation on the little "I" are transcended, an [[Awakening]] to a [[universal]], [[non-dual]] [[Self]] occurs: | ||
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+ | "When we let go of [[thoughts]] and wake up to the [[reality]] of [[life]] that is working [[beyond]] them, we discover the [[Self]] that is living [[universal]] [[non-dual]] [[life]] (before the separation into two) that pervades all living creatures and all [[existence]]." [[Thinking]] and [[thought]] must therefore not be allowed to confine and bind one. | ||
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+ | ==[[Vajrayana and Tantra]]== | ||
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[[File:70d-250wi.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:70d-250wi.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
− | Though based upon Mahayana, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice Vajrayana or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism). It accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy through ritual, visualization, physical exercises, and meditation as a means of developing the mind. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In the Tibetan tradition, these practices can include sexual yoga, though only for some very advanced practitioners. | + | Though based upon [[Mahayana]], Tibeto-Mongolian [[Buddhism]] is one of the schools that practice [[Vajrayana]] or "[[Diamond Vehicle]]" (also referred to as [[Mantrayāna]], [[Tantrayāna]], [[Tantric Buddhism]], or [[esoteric Buddhism]]). |
− | History | + | |
− | Philosophical roots | + | It accepts all the basic [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] of [[Mahāyāna]], but also includes a vast array of [[spiritual]] and [[physical]] techniques designed to enhance [[Buddhist practice]]. |
+ | |||
+ | [[Tantric Buddhism]] is largely concerned with [[ritual]] and [[meditative]] practices. One component of the [[Vajrayāna]] is harnessing [[psycho-physical]] [[energy]] through [[ritual]], [[visualization]], [[physical]] exercises, and [[meditation]] as a means of developing the [[mind]]. | ||
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+ | Using these techniques, it is claimed that a [[practitioner]] can achieve [[Buddhahood]] in one [[lifetime]], or even as little as three years. In the [[Tibetan tradition]], these practices can include {{Wiki|sexual}} [[yoga]], though only for some very advanced practitioners. | ||
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+ | ==[[History]]== | ||
+ | |||
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+ | ==[[Philosophical roots]]== | ||
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+ | Historically, the [[roots]] of [[Buddhism]] lie in the [[religious]] [[thought]] of {{Wiki|ancient India}} during the second half of the first millennium BCE.That was a period of {{Wiki|social}} and [[religious]] turmoil, as there was significant {{Wiki|discontent}} with the [[sacrifices]] and [[rituals]] of {{Wiki|Vedic}} [[Brahmanism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | It was challenged by numerous new [[ascetic]] [[religious]] and [[philosophical]] groups and teachings that broke with the [[Brahmanic]] [[tradition]] and rejected the authority of the [[Vedas]] and the [[Brahmans]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | These groups, whose members were known as [[shramanas]], were a [[continuation]] of a non-Vedic strand of [[Indian]] [[thought]] {{Wiki|distinct}} from [[Wikipedia:Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan]] [[Brahmanism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Scholars]] have [[reasons]] to believe that [[ideas]] such as [[samsara]], [[karma]] (in the [[sense]] of the influence of [[morality]] on [[rebirth]]), and [[moksha]] originated in the [[shramanas]], and were later adopted by [[Brahmin]] {{Wiki|orthodoxy}}. | ||
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+ | A ruined [[Buddhist temple]] on [[Gurubhakthula Konda]] (([[konda]] meaning "hill" in {{Wiki|Telugu}}) in Ramatheertham village in Vizianagaram, a district of [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]] | ||
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+ | This [[view]] is supported by a study of the region where these notions originated. [[Buddhism]] arose in Greater [[Magadha]], which stretched from [[Sravasti]], the capital of [[Kosala]] in the north-west, to [[Rajagrha]] in the [[south east]]. | ||
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+ | This land, to the [[east]] of aryavarta, the land of the [[Aryas]], was recognised as non-Vedic. Other {{Wiki|Vedic}} texts reveal a dislike of the [[people]] of [[Magadha]], in all {{Wiki|probability}} because the [[Magadhas]] at this [[time]] were not Brahmanised. It was not until the 2nd or 3rd centuries BCE that the eastward spread of [[Brahmanism]] into Greater [[Magadha]] became significant. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Ideas]] that developed in Greater [[Magadha]] prior to this were not [[subject]] to {{Wiki|Vedic}} influence. | ||
+ | |||
+ | These include [[rebirth]] and [[karmic]] retribution that appear in a number of movements in Greater [[Magadha]], including [[Buddhism]]. | ||
− | + | These movements inherited notions of [[rebirth]] and [[karmic]] retribution from an earlier {{Wiki|culture}}. | |
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[[File:147ages.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | [[File:147ages.jpg|thumb|250px|]] | ||
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− | + | At the same [[time]], these movements were influenced by, and in some respects continued, [[philosophical]] [[thought]] within the {{Wiki|Vedic}} [[tradition]] as reflected e.g. in the [[Upanishads]]. | |
− | + | These movements included, besides [[Buddhism]], various skeptics (such as [[Sanjaya Belatthiputta]]), [[Wikipedia:Atomism|atomists]] (such as [[Pakudha Kaccayana]]), {{Wiki|materialists}} (such as [[Ajita Kesakambali]]), antinomians (such as {{Wiki|Purana Kassapa}}); | |
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− | + | the most important ones in the 5th century BCE were the [[Ajivikas]], who emphasized the {{Wiki|rule}} of [[fate]], the [[Wikipedia:Cārvāka|Lokayata]] ({{Wiki|materialists}}), the [[Ajnanas]] ({{Wiki|agnostics}}) and the [[Jains]], who stressed that the [[soul]] must be freed from {{Wiki|matter}}. | |
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− | + | Many of these new movements shared the same {{Wiki|conceptual}} vocabulary - | |
− | |||
− | + | <poem> | |
+ | [[atman]] ("[[Self]]"), | ||
+ | [[buddha]] ("[[awakened one]]"), | ||
+ | [[dhamma]] ("{{Wiki|rule}}" or | ||
+ | "law"), [[karma]] ("[[action]]"), | ||
+ | [[nirvana]] ("[[extinguishing]]"), | ||
+ | [[samsara]] ("[[eternal]] recurrence") and | ||
+ | [[yoga]] ("[[spiritual]] practice"). | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
− | + | The [[shramanas]] rejected the [[Veda]], and the authority of the [[brahmans]], who claimed they possessed revealed [[truths]] not knowable by any ordinary [[human]] means. | |
− | + | Moreover, they declared that the entire [[Brahmanical]] system was fraudulent: a conspiracy of the [[brahmans]] to enrich themselves by charging exorbitant fees to perform bogus [[rites]] and give useless advice. | |
− | + | A particular [[criticism]] of the [[Buddha]] was {{Wiki|Vedic}} [[animal]] {{Wiki|sacrifice}}. | |
− | + | The [[Buddha]] declared that {{Wiki|priests}} reciting the [[Vedas]] were like the [[blind]] leading the [[blind]]. | |
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− | + | According to him, those {{Wiki|priests}} who had memorized the [[Vedas]] really knew [[nothing]]. | |
− | + | He also mocked the {{Wiki|Vedic}} "hymn of the [[cosmic]] man".However, the [[Buddha]] was not anti-Vedic, and declared that the [[Veda]] in its true [[form]] was declared by "[[Kashyapa]]" to certain {{Wiki|rishis}}, who by severe penances had acquired the power to see by [[divine]] [[eyes]]. | |
− | + | He names the {{Wiki|Vedic}} {{Wiki|rishis}}, and declared that the original [[Veda]] of the {{Wiki|rishis}} was altered by a few [[Brahmins]] who introduced [[animal]] [[sacrifices]]. | |
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− | The | + | The [[Buddha]] says that it was on this [[alteration]] of the true [[Veda]] that he refused to pay [[respect]] to the [[Vedas]] of his [[time]]. |
− | + | He declared that the primary goal of [[Upanishadic]] [[thought]], the [[Atman]], was in fact {{Wiki|non-existent}}, and, having explained that {{Wiki|Brahminical}} attempts to achieve [[liberation]] at [[death]] were futile, proposed his new [[idea]] of [[liberation]] in [[life]]. | |
− | + | However, he did not denounce the union with [[Brahman]], or the [[idea]] of the [[self]] uniting with the Self. | |
− | |||
− | + | At the same [[time]], the [[traditional]] {{Wiki|Brahminical}} [[religion]] itself gradually underwent profound changes, [[transforming]] it into what is [[recognized]] as early [[Hinduism]]. | |
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− | + | In particular, the [[brahmans]] thus developed "[[philosophical]] systems of their [[own]], meeting the new [[ideas]] with adaptations of their [[doctrines]]". | |
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− | Buddhism | + | ==[[Indian Buddhism]]== |
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− | The | + | The history of [[Indian Buddhism]] may be divided into five periods: [[Early Buddhism]] (occasionally called Pre-sectarian [[Buddhism]]), [[Nikaya Buddhism]] or {{Wiki|Sectarian}} [[Buddhism]]: |
− | The | + | The period of the Early [[Buddhist]] schools, [[Early Mahayana Buddhism]], [[Later Mahayana Buddhism]], and [[Esoteric Buddhism]] (also called [[Vajrayana Buddhism]]). |
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− | + | ==Pre-sectarian [[Buddhism]]== | |
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− | + | [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]] is the earliest phase of [[Buddhism]], [[recognized]] by nearly all [[scholars]]. Its main [[scriptures]] are the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the four [[principal]] [[Nikayas]] or [[Agamas]]. | |
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− | + | Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most [[scholars]] conclude that [[Gautama Buddha]] must have [[taught]] something similar to the [[Three marks of existence]], the [[Five Aggregates]], [[Dependent origination]], [[Karma and Rebirth]], the [[Four Noble Truths]], the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], and [[Nirvana]]. | |
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− | + | Some [[scholars]] disagree, and have proposed many other theories. | |
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− | + | ==[[Early Buddhist schools]]== | |
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− | + | According to the [[scriptures]], soon after the [[parinirvāṇa]] (from [[Sanskrit]]: "[[highest extinguishment]]") of [[Gautama Buddha]], the first [[Buddhist council]] was held. As with any {{Wiki|ancient Indian}} [[tradition]], [[transmission]] of [[teaching]] was done orally. | |
− | + | The primary {{Wiki|purpose}} of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in [[oral transmission]]. | |
− | + | In the [[first council]], [[Ānanda]], a cousin of the [[Buddha]] and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the [[discourses]] ([[sūtras]], [[Pāli]] [[suttas]]) of the [[Buddha]], and, according to some sources, the [[abhidhamma]]. [[Upāli]], another [[disciple]], recited the [[monastic rules]] ([[vinaya]]). | |
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− | Theravada school | + | [[Scholars]] regard the [[traditional]] accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious. |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | According to most [[scholars]], at some period after the [[Second Council]] the [[Sangha]] began to break into separate factions.The various accounts differ as to when the actual {{Wiki|schisms}} occurred. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to the [[Dipavamsa]] of the [[Pāli]] [[tradition]], they started immediately after the [[Second Council]], the [[Puggalavada tradition]] places it in 137 AN, the [[Sarvastivada tradition]] of [[Vasumitra]] says it was in the [[time]] of [[Asoka]] and the [[Mahasanghika tradition]] places it much later, nearly 100 BCE. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[root]] {{Wiki|schism}} was between the [[Sthaviras]] and the [[Mahāsāṅghikas]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[fortunate]] survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate [[traditions]]. The [[Sthavira]] group offers two quite {{Wiki|distinct}} [[reasons]] for the {{Wiki|schism}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Dipavamsa]] of the [[Theravāda]] says that the losing party in the [[Second Council]] dispute broke away in protest and formed the [[Mahasanghika]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | This contradicts the [[Mahasanghikas]]' [[own]] [[vinaya]], which shows them as on the same, winning side. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Mahāsāṅghikas]] argued that the [[Sthaviras]] were trying [[to expand]] the [[vinaya]] and may also have challenged what they [[perceived]] were excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for [[arhatship]]. Both parties, therefore, appealed to [[tradition]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Sthaviras]] gave rise to several schools, one of which was the [[Theravāda]] school. Originally, these {{Wiki|schisms}} were [[caused]] by [[disputes]] over [[vinaya]], and [[monks]] following different schools of [[thought]] seem to have lived happily together in the same [[monasteries]], but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, {{Wiki|schisms}} were being [[caused]] by [[doctrinal]] disagreements too. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | Following (or leading up to) the {{Wiki|schisms}}, each [[Saṅgha]] started to [[accumulate]] an [[Abhidharma]], a detailed {{Wiki|scholastic}} reworking of [[doctrinal]] material appearing in the [[Suttas]], according to {{Wiki|schematic}} classifications. | ||
+ | |||
+ | These [[Abhidharma]] texts do not contain systematic [[philosophical]] treatises, but summaries or numerical lists. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Scholars]] generally date these texts to around the 3rd century BCE, 100 to 200 years after the [[death of the Buddha]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Therefore the seven [[Abhidharma]] works are generally claimed not to represent the words of the [[Buddha]] himself, but those of [[disciples]] and great [[scholars]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Every school had its [[own]] version of the [[Abhidharma]], with different theories and different texts. The different [[Abhidharmas]] of the various schools did not agree with each other. [[Scholars]] disagree on whether the [[Mahasanghika]] school had an [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] or not. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Early Mahayana Buddhism]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | A [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|triad}} depicting, left to right, a {{Wiki|Kushan}}, the [[future buddha]] [[Maitreya]], [[Gautama Buddha]], the [[bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara]], and a [[Buddhist monk]]. 2nd—3rd century. Musée Guimet | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The origins of [[Mahāyāna]], which formed between 100 BCE and 100 AD,are still not completely understood. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The earliest [[views]] of [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] in the [[West]] assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "[[Hīnayāna]]" schools. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The split was on the order of the {{Wiki|European}} {{Wiki|Protestant}} Reformation, which divided [[Christians]] into {{Wiki|Catholic}} and Protestant. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Due to the veneration of [[buddhas]] and [[bodhisattvas]], [[Mahāyāna]] was often interpreted as a more devotional, lay-inspired [[form]] of [[Buddhism]], with supposed origins in [[stūpa]] veneration. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The old [[views]] of [[Mahāyāna]] as a lay-inspired [[sect]] are now largely considered misguided and wrong. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | There is no {{Wiki|evidence}} that [[Mahāyāna]] ever referred to a separate formal school or [[sect]] of [[Buddhism]], but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later [[doctrines]], for [[bodhisattvas]]. Initially it was known as [[Bodhisattvayāna]] (the "[[Vehicle]] of the [[Bodhisattvas]]"). | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Paul Williams]] has also noted that the [[Mahāyāna]] never had nor ever attempted to have a separate [[Vinaya]] or [[ordination]] [[lineage]] from the [[early schools]] of [[Buddhism]], and therefore each [[bhikṣu]] or [[bhikṣuṇī]] adhering to the [[Mahāyāna]] formally belonged to an early school. | ||
+ | |||
+ | This continues today with the [[Dharmaguptaka]] [[ordination]] [[lineage]] in {{Wiki|East Asia}}, and the [[Mūlasarvāstivāda]] [[ordination]] [[lineage]] in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Therefore [[Mahāyāna]] was never a separate rival [[sect]] of the [[early schools]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | From {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[monks]] visiting [[India]], we now know that both [[Mahāyāna]] and non-[[Mahāyāna]] [[monks]] in [[India]] often lived in the same [[monasteries]] side by side. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Large [[empty]] outline of a [[person]] in a rock cliff [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]]: [[Vairocana]] before and after destruction by the {{Wiki|Taliban}} in 2001 | ||
+ | |||
+ | The {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[monk]] [[Yijing]] who visited [[India]] in the 7th century CE, distinguishes [[Mahāyāna]] from [[Hīnayāna]] as follows: | ||
+ | |||
+ | Both adopt one and the same [[Vinaya]], and they have in common the prohibitions of the [[five offences]], and also the practice of the [[Four Noble Truths]]. Those who venerate the [[bodhisattvas]] and read the [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] are called the [[Mahāyānists]], while those who do not perform these are called the [[Hīnayānists]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Much of the early extant {{Wiki|evidence}} for the origins of [[Mahāyāna]] comes from early {{Wiki|Chinese}} translations of [[Mahāyāna texts]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | These [[Mahāyāna]] teachings were first propagated into [[China]] by [[Lokakṣema]], the first [[translator]] of [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] into {{Wiki|Chinese}} during the 2nd century CE. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Some [[scholars]] have [[traditionally]] considered the earliest [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] to include the very first versions of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] series, along with texts concerning [[Akṣobhya]] [[Buddha]], which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the [[south]] of [[India]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Late Mahayana Buddhism]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | During the period of Late [[Mahayana Buddhism]], four major types of [[thought]] developed: [[Madhyamaka]], [[Yogacara]], [[Tathagatagarbha]], and [[Buddhist Logic]] as the last and most recent. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In [[India]], the two main [[philosophical]] schools of the [[Mahayana]] were the [[Madhyamaka]] and the later [[Yogacara]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to [[Dan Lusthaus]], [[Madhyamaka]] and [[Yogacara]] have a great deal in common, and the commonality stems from [[early Buddhism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | There were no great [[Indian]] [[teachers]] associated with [[tathagatagarbha]] [[thought]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Vajrayana]] ([[Esoteric Buddhism]])== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | [[Scholarly]] research concerning [[Esoteric Buddhism]] is still in its early stages and has a number of problems that make research difficult: | ||
+ | [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] was influenced by [[Hinduism]], and therefore research must include explore [[Hinduism]] as well. | ||
+ | The [[scriptures]] of [[Vajrayana]] have not yet been put in any kind of order. | ||
+ | [[Ritual]] must be examined as well, not just [[doctrine]]. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Development of Buddhism]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|proselytism}} at the [[time]] of [[emperor]] [[Ashoka]] (260–218 BCE). | ||
+ | |||
+ | Coin depicting {{Wiki|Indo-Greek}} [[king]] {{Wiki|Menander}}, who, according to [[Buddhist tradition]] records in the [[Milinda Panha]], converted to the [[Buddhist]] [[faith]] and became an [[arhat]] in the 2nd century BCE . ({{Wiki|British Museum}}) | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Buddhism]] may have spread only slowly in [[India]] until the [[time]] of the [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] [[emperor]] [[Ashoka]], who was a public supporter of the [[religion]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The support of [[Aśoka]] and his descendants led to the construction of more [[stūpas]] ([[Buddhist]] [[religious]] memorials) and to efforts to spread [[Buddhism]] throughout the enlarged {{Wiki|Maurya empire}} and even into neighboring lands—particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of {{Wiki|Afghanistan}} and {{Wiki|Central Asia}}, [[beyond]] the {{Wiki|Mauryas}}' [[northwest]] border, and to the [[island]] of [[Sri Lanka]] [[south]] of [[India]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | These two missions, in opposite [[directions]], would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of [[Buddhism]] into [[China]], and in the second case, to the [[emergence]] of [[Theravāda Buddhism]] and its spread from [[Sri Lanka]] to the coastal lands of {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | This period marks the first known spread of [[Buddhism]] [[beyond]] [[India]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to the {{Wiki|edicts}} of [[Aśoka]], emissaries were sent to various countries [[west]] of [[India]] to spread [[Buddhism]] ([[Dharma]]), particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid [[Empire]], and even farther to {{Wiki|Hellenistic}} {{Wiki|kingdoms}} of the Mediterranean. | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is a {{Wiki|matter}} of disagreement among [[scholars]] whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by [[Buddhist]] [[missionaries]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[gradual]] spread of [[Buddhism]] into adjacent areas meant that it came into [[contact]] with new ethnical groups. | ||
+ | |||
+ | During this period [[Buddhism]] was exposed to a variety of [[influences]], from {{Wiki|Persian}} and {{Wiki|Greek}} {{Wiki|civilization}}, | ||
+ | |||
+ | to changing trends in [[non-Buddhist]] [[Indian]] religions—themselves influenced by [[Buddhism]]. Striking examples of this {{Wiki|syncretistic}} [[development]] can be seen in the [[emergence]] of Greek-speaking [[Buddhist]] monarchs in the {{Wiki|Indo-Greek}} {{Wiki|Kingdom}}, and in the [[development]] of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhāra]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | A {{Wiki|Greek}} [[king]], {{Wiki|Menander}}, has even been immortalized in the [[Buddhist canon]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Theravada school]] spread [[south]] from [[India]] in the 3rd century BCE, to [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Thailand]] and [[Burma]] and later also {{Wiki|Indonesia}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Dharmagupta school]] spread (also in 3rd century BCE) [[north]] to [[Kashmir]], [[Gandhara]] and {{Wiki|Bactria}} ({{Wiki|Afghanistan}}). | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The {{Wiki|Silk Road}} [[transmission]] of [[Buddhism]] to [[China]] is most commonly [[thought]] to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE, though the {{Wiki|literary}} sources are all open to question. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The first documented translation efforts by foreign [[Buddhist]] [[monks]] in [[China]] were in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the {{Wiki|Kushan Empire}} into the {{Wiki|Chinese}} territory of the {{Wiki|Tarim Basin}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | In the 2nd century CE, [[Mahayana Sutras]] spread to [[China]], and then to [[Korea]] and [[Japan]], and were translated into {{Wiki|Chinese}}. During the [[Indian]] period of [[Esoteric Buddhism]] (from the 8th century onwards), [[Buddhism]] spread from [[India]] to [[Tibet]] and [[Mongolia]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Buddhism today]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | =[[Polish Buddhists]]= | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | By the late {{Wiki|Middle Ages}}, [[Buddhism]] had become virtually [[extinct]] in [[India]], and although it continued to [[exist]] in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength worldwide. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Estimates of the number of [[Buddhist]] followers by [[scholars]] range from 550 million to 1.691 billion. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Most [[scholars]] classify similar numbers of [[people]] under a category they call "{{Wiki|Chinese}} {{Wiki|folk}}" or "[[traditional]]" [[religion]], an amalgam of various [[traditions]] that includes [[Buddhism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Formal membership varies between communities, but basic lay adherence is often defined in terms of a [[traditional]] [[formula]] in which the [[practitioner]] takes [[refuge]] in The [[Three Jewels]]: the [[Buddha]], the [[Dharma]] (the teachings of the [[Buddha]]), and the [[Sangha]] (the [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|community}}). | ||
+ | |||
+ | Estimates are uncertain for several [[reasons]]: | ||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | difficulties in defining who counts as a [[Buddhist]]; | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[syncretism]] among the Eastern [[religions]]. [[Buddhism]] is practiced by {{Wiki|adherents}} alongside many other [[religious]] [[traditions]]- including {{Wiki|Taoism}}, [[Wikipedia:Confucianism|Confucianism]], [[Shinto]], [[traditional]] [[religions]], [[shamanism]], and {{Wiki|animism}}- throughout [[East]] and {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | difficulties in estimating the number of [[Buddhists]] who do not have congregational memberships and often do not participate in public {{Wiki|ceremonies}}; | ||
+ | |||
+ | official policies on [[religion]] in several historically [[Buddhist]] countries that make accurate assessments of [[religious]] adherence more difficult; most notably [[China]], [[Vietnam]] and [[North]] [[Korea]]. In many current and former {{Wiki|Communist}} governments in {{Wiki|Asia}}, government policies may discourage {{Wiki|adherents}} from reporting their [[religious]] [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]], or may encourage official counts to underestimate [[religious]] adherence. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[China]] and [[India]] are now starting to fund [[Buddhist]] [[shrines]] in various {{Wiki|Asian}} countries as they compete for influence in the region. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Late 20th Century Buddhist Movements]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | A number of {{Wiki|modern}} movements or {{Wiki|tendencies}} in [[Buddhism]] emerged during the second half of the 20th Century, including the Dalit [[Buddhist]] movement(also sometimes called 'neo-Buddhism'), [[Engaged Buddhism]], and the further [[development]] of various {{Wiki|Western}} [[Buddhist traditions]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Demographics]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Percentage of cultural/nominal {{Wiki|adherents}} of combined [[Buddhism]] with its related [[religions]] (according to the [[highest]] estimates). | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to one analysis, [[Buddhism]] is the fourth-largest [[religion]] in the [[world]] behind {{Wiki|Christianity}}, {{Wiki|Islam}} and [[Hinduism]]. The [[monks]]' order ([[Sangha]]), which began during the [[lifetime]] of the [[Buddha]], is among the oldest organizations on [[earth]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Buddhism]] was the first [[world]] religionand was the world's largest [[religion]] in the first half of the 20th century — in 1951 [[Buddhism]] was the world's largest [[religion]] with 520 million {{Wiki|adherents}}. By comparison, the second largest was {{Wiki|Christianity}} with 500 million {{Wiki|adherents}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Theravada Buddhism]], using [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pāli]] as its [[scriptural]] [[languages]], is the dominant [[form]] of [[Buddhism]] in [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Burma]]. The [[Dalit Buddhist movement]] in [[India]] (inspired by [[B. R. Ambedkar]]) also practices [[Theravada]]. Approximately 124 million {{Wiki|adherents}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | {{Wiki|East Asian}} [[forms]] of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] that use {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[scriptures]] are dominant in most of [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], {{Wiki|Taiwan}}, {{Wiki|Singapore}} and [[Vietnam]] as well as such communities within {{Wiki|Indochina}}, {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}} and the [[West]]. | ||
+ | [[Vietnam]] and {{Wiki|Singapore}} are major concentrations of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] in {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}. Approximately 500 million to one billion. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is found in [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Mongolia]], areas of [[India]] (it's the majority [[religion]] in {{Wiki|Ladakh}}; significant population in [[Himachal Pradesh]], {{Wiki|Arunachal Pradesh}} and [[Sikkim]]), [[China]] (particularly in [[Tibet]] and {{Wiki|Inner Mongolia}}), and {{Wiki|Russia}} ({{Wiki|Kalmyk}} Autonomous {{Wiki|Republic}}). Approximately 20 million {{Wiki|adherents}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Most [[Buddhist]] groups in the [[West]] are at least nominally affiliated with one of these three [[traditions]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | At the {{Wiki|present}} [[time]], the teachings of all three branches of [[Buddhism]] have spread throughout the [[world]], and [[Buddhist texts]] are increasingly translated into local [[languages]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | While in the [[West]] [[Buddhism]] is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the [[East]] it is regarded as familiar and [[traditional]]. [[Buddhists]] in {{Wiki|Asia}} are frequently well organized and well funded. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In a number of countries, it is [[recognized]] as an official [[religion]] and receives [[state]] support. {{Wiki|Modern}} [[influences]] increasingly lead to new [[forms]] of [[Buddhism]] that significantly depart from [[traditional]] [[beliefs]] and practices. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Schools and traditions]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Buddhists]] generally classify themselves as either [[Theravada]] or Mahayana.This {{Wiki|classification}} is also used by some [[scholars]] and is the one ordinarily used in the English [[language]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | An alternative scheme used by some [[scholars]] divides [[Buddhism]] into the following three [[traditions]] or geographical or {{Wiki|cultural}} areas: [[Theravada]], {{Wiki|East Asian}} [[Buddhism]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Some [[scholars]] use other schemes. [[Buddhists]] themselves have a variety of other schemes. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Hinayana]] (literally "[[lesser vehicle]]") is used by [[Mahayana]] followers to [[name]] the [[family]] of early [[philosophical]] schools and [[traditions]] from which contemporary [[Theravada]] emerged, but as this term is rooted in the [[Mahayana]] viewpoint and can be considered derogatory, | ||
+ | |||
+ | a variety of other terms are increasingly used instead, including [[Śrāvakayāna]], [[Nikaya Buddhism]], [[early Buddhist schools]], {{Wiki|sectarian}} [[Buddhism]], conservative [[Buddhism]], {{Wiki|mainstream}} [[Buddhism]] and non-Mahayana [[Buddhism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Not all [[traditions]] of [[Buddhism]] share the same [[philosophical]] outlook, or treat the same [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] as central. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Each [[tradition]], however, does have its [[own]] core [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]], and some comparisons can be drawn between them. | ||
+ | |||
+ | For example, according to one [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|ecumenical}} [[organization]], several [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] common to both major [[Buddhist]] branches: | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | Both accept the [[Buddha]] as their [[teacher]]. | ||
+ | Both accept the [[Middle way]], [[Dependent origination]], the [[Four Noble Truths]], the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] and the [[Three marks of existence]]. | ||
+ | Both accept that members of the laity and of the [[sangha]] can pursue the [[path]] toward [[enlightenment]] ([[bodhi]]). | ||
+ | Both consider [[buddhahood]] the [[highest]] [[attainment]]. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Theravada school]] | ||
− | |||
− | |||
− | Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in Europe and America. | + | [[Theravada]] ("[[Doctrine]] of the [[Elders]]", or "{{Wiki|Ancient}} [[Doctrine]]") is the oldest surviving [[Buddhist]] school. It is relatively conservative, and generally closest to [[early Buddhism]]. |
+ | |||
+ | This school is derived from the [[Vibhajjavāda]] grouping that emerged amongst the older [[Sthavira]] group at the [[time]] of the [[Third Buddhist Council]] (c. 250 BCE). | ||
+ | |||
+ | This school gradually declined on the [[Indian]] subcontinent, but its branch in [[Sri Lanka]] and [[South East]] {{Wiki|Asia}} continues to survive. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Theravada school]] bases its practice and [[doctrine]] exclusively on the [[Pāli Canon]] and its commentaries. | ||
+ | |||
+ | After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its [[scriptures]], the [[Pali Canon]], were finally committed to [[writing]] in the 1st century BCE, in [[Sri Lanka]], at what the [[Theravada]] usually reckon as the [[fourth council]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is also one of the first [[Buddhist]] schools to commit the complete set of its [[canon]] into [[writing]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Sutta]] collections and [[Vinaya]] texts of the [[Pāli Canon]] (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the [[Tripitaka]]), are generally considered by {{Wiki|modern}} [[scholars]] to be the earliest [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|literature}}, and they are accepted as [[Wikipedia:Authenticity|authentic]] in every branch of [[Buddhism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Theravāda]] is primarily practiced today in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Cambodia]] as well as small portions of [[China]], [[Vietnam]], {{Wiki|Malaysia}} and {{Wiki|Bangladesh}}. It has a growing presence in {{Wiki|Europe}} and {{Wiki|America}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Theravadin]] [[Buddhists]] think that personal [[effort]] is required to realize [[rebirth]]. [[Meditation]] is done by {{Wiki|forest}} [[monks]] for the most part, while village [[monks]] teach and serve their lay communities. Laypersons can perform good [[actions]], producing [[merit]] that can be traded to the [[gods]] who may reward it with material benefits. | ||
+ | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | ==[[Mahayana traditions]]== | |
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | {{Wiki|Chinese}} and {{Wiki|{{Wiki|Central Asia}}n}} [[monks]]. [[Bezeklik]], Eastern {{Wiki|Tarim Basin}}, [[China]], 9th–10th century. (National Institute of Informatics and the Tōyō Bunko) | |
− | |||
− | + | [[Mahayana Buddhism]] flourished in [[India]] from the 5th century CE onwards, during the {{Wiki|dynasty}} of the [[Guptas]]. [[Mahāyāna]] centres of {{Wiki|learning}} were established, the most important one being the [[Nālandā]] {{Wiki|University}} in north-eastern [[India]]. | |
− | + | [[Mahayana]] schools [[recognize]] all or part of the [[Mahayana Sutras]]. Some of these [[sutras]] became for [[Mahayanists]] a [[manifestation]] of the [[Buddha]] himself, and [[faith]] in and veneration of those texts are stated in some [[sutras]] (e.g. the [[Lotus Sutra]] and the [[Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]) to lay the foundations for the later [[attainment of Buddhahood]] itself. | |
− | |||
− | + | Native [[Mahayana Buddhism]] is practiced today in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], {{Wiki|Singapore}}, parts of {{Wiki|Russia}} and most of [[Vietnam]] (also commonly referred to as "Eastern [[Buddhism]]"). | |
− | |||
− | |||
+ | The [[Buddhism]] practiced in [[Tibet]], the [[Himalayan]] regions, and [[Mongolia]] is also [[Mahayana]] in origin, but is discussed below under the heading of [[Vajrayana]] (also commonly referred to as "[[Northern Buddhism]]". | ||
− | + | There are a variety of [[strands]] in Eastern [[Buddhism]], of which "the [[Pure Land school]] of [[Mahayana]] is the most widely practised today.".In most of this area however, they are fused into a single unified [[form]] of [[Buddhism]]. | |
− | + | In [[Japan]] in particular, they [[form]] separate denominations with the five major ones being: [[Nichiren]], peculiar to [[Japan]]; | |
− | |||
− | + | <poem> | |
+ | [[Pure Land]]; | ||
+ | [[Shingon]], a [[form]] of [[Vajrayana]]; | ||
+ | [[Tendai]], and [[Zen]]. | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | In [[Korea]], nearly all [[Buddhists]] belong to the [[Chogye]] school, which is officially Son ([[Zen]]), but with substantial [[elements]] from other [[traditions]]. | |
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | [[Vajrayana traditions]] | |
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | The | + | The [[Vajrayana tradition]] of [[Buddhism]] spread to [[China]], [[Mongolia]], and [[Tibet]]. [[In Tibet]], [[Vajrayana]] has always been a main component of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], while in [[China]] it formed a separate [[sect]]. |
− | + | However, [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] became [[extinct]] in [[China]] but survived in [[elements]] of [[Japan's]] [[Shingon]] and [[Tendai]] sects. | |
− | |||
− | + | There are differing [[views]] as to just when [[Vajrayāna]] and its [[tantric]] practice started. In the [[Tibetan tradition]], it is claimed that the historical [[Śākyamuni Buddha]] [[taught]] [[tantra]], but as these are [[esoteric teachings]], they were passed on orally first and only written down long after the [[Buddha's]] other teachings. | |
− | |||
− | + | [[Nālandā]] {{Wiki|University}} became a center for the [[development]] of [[Vajrayāna]] {{Wiki|theory}} and continued as the source of leading-edge [[Vajrayāna]] practices up through the 11th century. These practices, [[scriptures]] and theories were transmitted to [[China]], [[Tibet]], {{Wiki|Indochina}} and {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}. | |
− | + | [[China]] generally received [[Indian]] [[transmission]] up to the 11th century including [[tantric]] practice, while a vast amount of what is considered [[Tibetan Buddhism]] ([[Vajrayāna]]) stems from the late (9th–12th century) [[Nālandā tradition]]. | |
− | + | In one of the first major contemporary {{Wiki|academic}} treatises on the [[subject]], Fairfield {{Wiki|University}} {{Wiki|professor}} [[Ronald M. Davidson]] argues that the rise of [[Vajrayana]] was in part a {{Wiki|reaction}} to the changing {{Wiki|political}} climate in [[India]] at the [[time]]. | |
− | + | With the fall of the {{Wiki|Gupta dynasty}}, in an increasingly fractious {{Wiki|political}} {{Wiki|environment}}, institutional [[Buddhism]] had difficulty attracting {{Wiki|patronage}}, and the {{Wiki|folk}} {{Wiki|movement}} led by [[siddhas]] became more prominent. | |
− | + | After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the [[monastic]] establishment. | |
− | + | [[Vajrayana]] combined and developed a variety of [[elements]], a number of which had already existed for centuries. In addition to the [[Mahāyāna]] [[scriptures]], [[Vajrayāna]] [[Buddhists]] recognise a large [[body]] of [[Buddhist]] [[Tantras]], some of which are also included in {{Wiki|Chinese}} and [[Japanese]] collections of [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|literature}}, and versions of a few even in the [[Pali Canon]]. | |
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | ==[[Buddhist texts]]== | |
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | [[Buddhist scriptures]] and other texts [[exist]] in great variety. | |
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− | + | Different [[schools of Buddhism]] place varying levels of value on {{Wiki|learning}} the various texts. | |
− | + | Some schools venerate certain texts as [[religious]] [[objects]] in themselves, while others take a more {{Wiki|scholastic}} approach. | |
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− | + | [[Buddhist scriptures]] are mainly written in [[Pāli]], [[Tibetan]], {{Wiki|Mongolian}}, and {{Wiki|Chinese}}. Some texts still [[exist]] in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Buddhist]] [[Wikipedia:Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit|Hybrid Sanskrit]]. | |
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− | + | Unlike many [[religions]], [[Buddhism]] has no single central text that is universally referred to by all [[traditions]]. | |
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− | + | However, some [[scholars]] have referred to the [[Vinaya Pitaka]] and the first four [[Nikayas]] of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] as the common core of all [[Buddhist traditions]]. | |
+ | |||
+ | This could be considered misleading, as [[Mahāyāna]] considers these merely a preliminary, and not a core, [[teaching]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Tibetan Buddhists]] have not even translated most of the [[āgamas]] (though theoretically they [[recognize]] them) and they play no part in the [[religious]] [[life]] of either {{Wiki|clergy}} or laity in [[China]] and [[Japan]]. | ||
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+ | Other [[scholars]] say there is no universally accepted common core. | ||
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+ | The size and complexity of the [[Buddhist]] canons have been seen by some (including [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|social}} reformer [[Babasaheb]] [[Ambedkar]]) as presenting barriers to the wider [[understanding]] of [[Buddhist philosophy]]. | ||
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+ | The followers of [[Theravāda Buddhism]] take the [[scriptures]] known as the [[Pāli Canon]] as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]] base their [[faith]] and [[philosophy]] primarily on the [[Mahāyāna sūtras]] and their [[own]] [[vinaya]]. | ||
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+ | The [[Pāli]] [[sutras]], along with other, closely related [[scriptures]], are known to the other schools as the [[āgamas]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single [[Buddhist text]] that can encompass all of the major {{Wiki|principles}} of [[Buddhism]]. | ||
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+ | In the [[Theravada tradition]], condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential [[scriptures]] into single volumes that could be studied by [[novice]] [[monks]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Later in [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Dhammapada]] was championed as a unifying [[scripture]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | Dwight Goddard collected a sample of [[Buddhist scriptures]], with the {{Wiki|emphasis}} on [[Zen]], along with other classics of Eastern [[philosophy]], such as the {{Wiki|Tao Te Ching}}, into his '[[Buddhist]] Bible' in the 1920s. | ||
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+ | More recently, Dr. [[Babasaheb]] [[Ambedkar]] attempted to create a single, combined document of [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|principles}} in "The [[Buddha]] and His [[Dhamma]]". Other such efforts have persisted to {{Wiki|present}} day, but currently there is no single text that represents all [[Buddhist traditions]]. | ||
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+ | =[[Pāli]] [[Tipitaka]]= | ||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Pāli Canon]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Vinaya Pitaka]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | [[Suttavibhanga]] | ||
+ | [[Khandhaka]] | ||
+ | [[Parivara]] | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | ==[[Sutta Pitaka]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | [[Digha Nikaya]] | ||
+ | [[Majjhima Nikaya]] | ||
+ | [[Samyutta Nikaya]] | ||
+ | [[Anguttara Nikaya]] | ||
+ | [[Khuddaka Nikaya]] | ||
</poem> | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | <poem> | ||
+ | [[Dhammasangani]] | ||
+ | [[Vibhanga]] | ||
+ | [[Dhatukatha]] and [[Puggalapannatti]] | ||
+ | [[Kathavatthu]] | ||
+ | [[Yamaka]] | ||
+ | [[Patthana]] | ||
+ | </poem> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Pāli]] [[Tipitaka]], which means "[[three baskets]]", refers to the [[Vinaya Pitaka]], the [[Sutta Pitaka]], and the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Vinaya Pitaka]] contains disciplinary {{Wiki|rules}} for the [[Buddhist]] [[monks and nuns]], as well as explanations of why and how these {{Wiki|rules}} were instituted, supporting material, and [[doctrinal]] clarification. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Sutta Pitaka]] contains [[discourses]] ascribed to [[Gautama Buddha]]. The [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] contains material often described as systematic [[expositions]] of the [[Gautama]] [[Buddha's teachings]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Pāli]] [[Tipitaka]] is the only early [[Tipitaka]] ([[Sanskrit]]: [[Tripiṭaka]]) to survive intact in its original [[language]], but a number of [[early schools]] had their [[own]] recensions of the [[Tipitaka]] featuring much of the same material. | ||
+ | |||
+ | We have portions of the [[Tipitakas]] of the [[Sārvāstivāda]], [[Dharmaguptaka]], Sammitya, [[Mahāsaṅghika]], [[Kāśyapīya]], and [[Mahīśāsaka]] schools, most of which survive in {{Wiki|Chinese}} translation only. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to some sources, some [[early schools]] of [[Buddhism]] had five or seven [[pitakas]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | According to the [[scriptures]], soon after the [[death]] of the [[Buddha]], the first [[Buddhist council]] was held; a [[monk]] named [[Mahākāśyapa]] ([[Pāli]]: [[Mahākassapa]]) presided. The goal of the council was to record the [[Buddha's teachings]]. [[Upāli]] recited the [[vinaya]]. | ||
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+ | [[Ānanda]], the [[Buddha's]] personal attendant, was called upon to recite the [[dhamma]]. These became the basis of the [[Tripitaka]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | However, this record was initially transmitted orally in [[form]] of [[chanting]], and was committed to text in the last century BCE. Both the [[sūtras]] and the [[vinaya]] of every [[Buddhist]] school contain a wide variety of [[elements]] including [[discourses]] on the [[Dharma]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | commentaries on other teachings, [[cosmological]] and cosmogonical texts, stories of the [[Gautama]] [[Buddha's]] previous [[lives]], and various other [[subjects]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Much of the material in the [[Canon]] is not specifically "[[Theravadin]]", but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, [[non-sectarian]] [[body]] of teachings. | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to [[Peter Harvey]], it contains material at odds with later [[Theravadin]] {{Wiki|orthodoxy}}. He states: "The [[Theravadins]], then, may have added texts to the [[Canon]] for some [[time]], but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period." | ||
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+ | |||
+ | ==[[Mahayana sutras]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Tripiṭaka]] Koreana in {{Wiki|South Korea}}, an edition of the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] carved and preserved in over 81,000 [[wood]] [[printing]] blocks. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Mahayana sutras]] are a very broad genre of [[Buddhist scriptures]] that the [[Mahayana Buddhist tradition]] holds are original teachings of the [[Buddha]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Some {{Wiki|adherents}} of [[Mahayana]] accept both the early teachings (including in this the [[Sarvastivada]] [[Abhidharma]], which was criticized by [[Nagarjuna]] and is in fact opposed to early [[Buddhist]] [[thought]]) and the [[Mahayana sutras]] as [[Wikipedia:Authenticity|authentic]] teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]], and claim they were designed for different types of persons and different levels of [[spiritual]] [[understanding]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | The [[Mahayana sutras]] often claim to articulate the [[Buddha's]] deeper, more advanced [[doctrines]], reserved for those who follow the [[bodhisattva]] [[path]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | That [[path]] is explained as being built upon the [[motivation]] to {{Wiki|liberate}} all [[living beings]] from [[unhappiness]]. Hence the [[name]] [[Mahāyāna]] (lit., the [[Great Vehicle]]). | ||
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+ | |||
+ | According to [[Mahayana tradition]], the [[Mahayana sutras]] were transmitted in secret, came from other [[Buddhas]] or [[Bodhisattvas]], or were preserved in {{Wiki|non-human}} [[worlds]] because [[human beings]] at the [[time]] could not understand them: | ||
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+ | |||
+ | Some of our sources maintain the authenticity of certain other texts not found in the canons of these schools (the [[early schools]]). | ||
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+ | These texts are those held genuine by the later school, not one of the eighteen, which arrogated to itself the title of [[Mahayana]], '[[Great Vehicle]]'. According to the [[Mahayana]] {{Wiki|historians}} these texts were admittedly unknown to the [[early schools]] of [[Buddhists]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | However, they had all been promulgated by the [[Buddha]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | [The [[Buddha's]]) followers on [[earth, the]] [[sravakas]] ('pupils'), had not been sufficiently advanced to understand them, and hence were not given them to remember, but they were [[taught]] to various [[supernatural]] [[beings]] and then preserved in such places as the [[Dragon]] [[World]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | Approximately six hundred [[Mahayana sutras]] have survived in [[Sanskrit]] or in {{Wiki|Chinese}} or [[Tibetan]] translations. In addition, {{Wiki|East Asian}} [[Buddhism]] [[recognizes]] some [[sutras]] regarded by [[scholars]] as of {{Wiki|Chinese}} rather than [[Indian]] origin. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Generally, [[scholars]] conclude that the [[Mahayana scriptures]] were composed from the 1st century CE onwards: "Large numbers of [[Mahayana sutras]] were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common {{Wiki|era}} and the fifth century", | ||
+ | |||
+ | five centuries after the historical [[Gautama Buddha]]. Some of these had their [[roots]] in other [[scriptures]] composed in the 1st century BCE. | ||
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+ | It was not until after the 5th century CE that the [[Mahayana sutras]] started to influence the {{Wiki|behavior}} of {{Wiki|mainstream}} [[Buddhists]] in [[India]]: | ||
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+ | "But outside of texts, at least in [[India]], at exactly the same period, very different—in fact seemingly older—ideas and [[aspirations]] appear to be motivating actual {{Wiki|behavior}}, and old and established Hinnayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported." | ||
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+ | These texts were apparently not universally accepted among [[Indian]] [[Buddhists]] when they appeared; the pejorative label [[hinayana]] was applied by [[Mahayana]] supporters to those who rejected the [[Mahayana sutras]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | Only the [[Theravada school]] does not include the [[Mahayana scriptures]] in its [[canon]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | As the {{Wiki|modern}} [[Theravada school]] is descended from a branch of [[Buddhism]] that diverged and established itself in [[Sri Lanka]] prior to the [[emergence]] of the [[Mahayana texts]], | ||
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+ | [[debate]] [[exists]] as to whether the [[Theravada]] were historically included in the [[hinayana]] designation; in the {{Wiki|modern}} {{Wiki|era}}, this label is seen as derogatory, and is generally avoided. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | [[Scholar]] {{Wiki|Isabelle Onians}} asserts that although "the [[Mahāyāna]] ... very occasionally referred contemptuously to earlier [[Buddhism]] as the [[Hinayāna]], the {{Wiki|Inferior}} Way," "the preponderance of this [[name]] in the secondary {{Wiki|literature}} is far out of proportion to occurrences in the [[Indian]] texts." | ||
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+ | She notes that the term [[Śrāvakayāna]] was "the more {{Wiki|politically}} correct and much more usual" term used by [[Mahāyānists]]. | ||
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+ | [[Jonathan Silk]] has argued that the term "[[Hinayana]]" was used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any given [[occasion]], and did not refer to any definite grouping of [[Buddhists]]. | ||
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+ | ==[[Comparative studies]]== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Buddhism]] provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of [[subjects]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | For example, [[Buddhism's]] {{Wiki|emphasis}} on the [[Middle way]] not only provides a unique guideline for [[ethics]] but has also allowed [[Buddhism]] to peacefully coexist with various differing [[beliefs]], customs and {{Wiki|institutions}} in countries where it has resided throughout its history. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Also, its [[moral]] and [[spiritual]] parallels with other systems of thought—for example, with various {{Wiki|tenets}} of {{Wiki|Christianity}}—have been [[subjects]] of close study. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In addition, the [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|concept}} of [[dependent origination]] has been compared to {{Wiki|modern}} [[scientific]] [[thought]], as well as {{Wiki|Western}} [[metaphysics]]. | ||
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+ | ==[[Is Buddhism a religion]]?== | ||
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+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | There are differences of opinion on the question of whether or not [[Buddhism]] should be considered a [[religion]]. Many sources commonly refer to [[Buddhism]] as a [[religion]]. For example: | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Peter Harvey]] states: "The English term '[[Buddhism]]' correctly indicates that the [[religion]] is characterized by [[devotion]] to 'the [[Buddha]]', '[[Buddhas]]', or '[[buddhahood]]'." | ||
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+ | {{Wiki|Joseph Goldstein}} states: "Although there are many difference among the various [[religions]] of the [[world]], and among the various [[schools of Buddhism]] itself, there is also a great deal in common..." | ||
+ | |||
+ | Other sources note that the answer to this question depends upon how [[religion]] is defined. For example: | ||
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+ | |||
+ | [[Surya Das]] states: "For [[Buddhism]] is less a {{Wiki|theology}} or [[religion]] than a promise that certain [[meditative]] practices and [[mind]] trainings can effectively show us how to [[awaken]] our [[Buddha-nature]] and {{Wiki|liberate}} us from [[suffering]] and {{Wiki|confusion}}." | ||
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+ | |||
+ | B. {{Wiki|Alan Wallace}} states: "When we in the [[West]] first engage with [[Buddhism]], it is almost inevitable that we bring out one of our familiar stereotypes and apply it to [[Buddhism]], calling it simply a '[[religion]].'... | ||
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+ | But [[Buddhism]] has never been simply a [[religion]] as we define it in the [[West]]. From the very beginning it has also had [[philosophical]] [[elements]], as well as [[empirical]] and [[rational]] [[elements]] that may invite the term '[[science]].'" | ||
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+ | |||
+ | {{Wiki|Rupert Gethin}} states: "I am not concerned here to pronounce on a question that is sometimes asked of [[Buddhism]]: is it a [[religion]]? Obviously it depends on how one defines ‘a [[religion]]’. | ||
+ | |||
+ | What is certain, however, is that [[Buddhism]] does not involve [[belief]] in a creator [[God]] who has control over [[human]] [[destiny]], nor does it seek to define itself by reference to a [[creed]]; as {{Wiki|Edward Conze}} has pointed out, it took over 2,000 years and a couple of {{Wiki|Western}} converts to [[Buddhism]] to provide it with a [[creed]]. | ||
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+ | On the other hand, [[Buddhism]] [[views]] [[activities]] that would be generally understood as religious—such as devotional practices and rituals—as a legitimate, useful, and even [[essential]] part of the practice and {{Wiki|training}} that leads to the [[cessation of suffering]]. | ||
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+ | [[Gethin]] points out that some key differences between [[Buddhism]] and {{Wiki|conventionally}} considered {{Wiki|Western religions}} are that [[Buddhism]] does not assert a [[belief]] in a creator [[god]], nor does it define itself by a particular [[creed]]. | ||
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+ | On the other hand, [[Gethin]] notes, [[Buddhist practice]] often includes devotional practices and [[ritual]], which are typically associated with [[religious]] [[belief]]. | ||
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+ | |||
+ | {Wiki|Damien Keown}} states: "Problems [...] confront us as soon as we try to define what [[Buddhism]] is. Is it a [[religion]]? A [[philosophy]]? A way of [[life]]? A code of [[ethics]]? | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is not easy to classify [[Buddhism]] as any of these things, and it challenges us to rethink some of these categories. | ||
+ | |||
+ | What, for example, do we mean by ‘[[religion]]’? Most [[people]] would say that [[religion]] has something to do with [[belief]] in [[God]]. [...] If [[belief]] in [[God]] in this [[sense]] is the [[essence]] of [[religion]], then [[Buddhism]] cannot be a [[religion]]. [...] | ||
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+ | Some have suggested that a new category – that of the ‘[[non-theistic]]’ [[religion]] – is needed to encompass [[Buddhism]]. Another possibility is that our original [[definition]] is simply too narrow. | ||
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+ | The [[Dalai Lama]] states: "From one viewpoint, [[Buddhism]] is a [[religion]], from another viewpoint [[Buddhism]] is a [[science]] of [[mind]] and not a [[religion]]. [[Buddhism]] can be a bridge between these two sides. | ||
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+ | Therefore, with this conviction I try to have closer ties with [[scientists]], mainly in the fields of [[cosmology]], {{Wiki|psychology}}, neurobiology and {{Wiki|physics}}. In these fields there are [[insights]] to share, and to a certain extent we can work together." | ||
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+ | |||
+ | Ilkka_Pyysiäinen states: "There are thus great difficulties involved in [[conceptualizing]] [[religion]] as [[belief]] in god(s), superhuman agents, etc., although we intuitively think that some such [[beings]], nevertheless, are [[essential]] in [[religion]]. | ||
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+ | As is well-known, [[Buddhism]] is the favorite example of [[scholars]] who have argued that we should find some other way of defining [[religion]] than the one based on the [[idea]] of [[belief]] in [[gods]] or superhuman [[beings]]." and "[[Buddhism]] does not have to be the problematic touchstone for a global {{Wiki|concept}} of [[religion]]." | ||
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+ | Martin Southwold states: "It is argued that [[Buddhism]], though [[non-theistic]], resembles other [[religions]] in depending on [[mystical]] notions; it is shown how this contributes to [[understanding]] the {{Wiki|social}} functions of [[religions]]." | ||
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+ | [[Walpola Rahula]] states: "The question has often been asked: Is [[Buddhism]] a [[religion]] or a [[philosophy]]? It does not {{Wiki|matter}} what you call it. [[Buddhism]] remains what it is whatever label you may put on it. The label is {{Wiki|immaterial}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Even the label '[[Buddhism]]' which we give to the [[teaching]] of the [[Buddha]] is of little importance. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[name]] one gives it is inessential. What's in a [[name]]? That which we call a rose, By any other [[name]] would {{Wiki|smell}} as [[sweet]]. In the same way [[Truth]] needs no label: it is neither [[Buddhist]], {{Wiki|Christian}}, [[Hindu]] nor [[Moslem]]. | ||
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+ | It is not the monopoly of anybody. {{Wiki|Sectarian}} labels are a [[hindrance]] to the {{Wiki|independent}} [[understanding]] of [[Truth]], and they produce harmful prejudices in men's [[minds]]." | ||
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{{W}} | {{W}} | ||
[[Category:Buddhist Terms]] | [[Category:Buddhist Terms]] | ||
[[Category:Buddhism]] | [[Category:Buddhism]] |
Latest revision as of 16:44, 3 April 2016
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Buddhism is a religion indigenous to the Indian subcontinent that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama,
who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.
He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end suffering (dukkha) through eliminating ignorance (avidyā) by way of understanding and seeing dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda) and eliminating craving (taṇhā), and thus attain the cessation of all suffering, the sublime state of nirvāņa.
Two major branches of Buddhism are generally recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar etc.). Mahayana is found throughout
East Asia (China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Singapore, Taiwan
etc.) and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, and Tiantai (Tendai). In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana.
While Buddhism remains most popular within Asia, both branches are now found throughout the world. Estimates of Buddhists worldwide vary significantly depending on the way Buddhist adherence is defined.
Conservative estimates are between 350 and 750 million. Higher estimates are between 1.2 and 1.7 billion. It is also recognized as one of the fastest growing religions in the world.
Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices.
The foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community).
Taking "refuge in the triple gem" has traditionally been a declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path, and in general distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist.
Other practices may include following ethical precepts; support of the monastic community; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic;
the development of mindfulness and practice of meditation; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment; study of scriptures; devotional practices; ceremonies; and in the Mahayana tradition, invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Life of the Buddha
This narrative draws on the Nidānakathā biography of the Theravāda sect in Sri Lanka, which is ascribed to Buddhaghoṣa in the 5th century CE.
Earlier biographies such as the Buddhacarita, the Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu, and the Mahāyāna / Sarvāstivāda Lalitavistara Sūtra, give different accounts. Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies.
According to author Michael Carrithers, while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, "the outline of the life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death."
In writing her biography of the Buddha, Karen Armstrong noted, "It is obviously difficult, therefore, to write a biography of the Buddha that meets modern criteria, because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound... [but] we can be reasonably confident Siddhatta Gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could."
The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.
It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.
According to the Theravada Tripitaka scriptures (from Pali, meaning "three baskets"), Gautama was born in Lumbini in modern-day Nepal, around the year 563 BCE, and raised in Kapilavastu.
According to this narrative, shortly after the birth of young prince Gautama, an astrologer visited the young prince's father—King Śuddhodana—and prophesied that Siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man, depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls.
Śuddhodana was determined to see his son become a king, so he prevented him from leaving the palace grounds.
But at age 29, despite his father's efforts, Gautama ventured beyond the palace several times. In a series of encounters—known in Buddhist literature as the four sights—he learned of the suffering of ordinary people, encountering an old man, a sick man, a corpse and, finally, an ascetic holy man, apparently content and at peace with the world.
These experiences prompted Gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest.
Gautama first went to study with famous religious teachers of the day, and mastered the meditative attainments they taught.
But he found that they did not provide a permanent end to suffering, so he continued his quest. He next attempted an extreme asceticism, which was a religious pursuit common among the Shramanas, a religious culture distinct from the Vedic one. Gautama underwent prolonged fasting, breath-holding, and exposure to pain. He almost starved himself to death in the process.
He realized that he had taken this kind of practice to its limit, and had not put an end to suffering.
So in a pivotal moment he accepted milk and rice from a village girl and changed his approach. He devoted himself to anapanasati meditation, through which he discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way (Skt. madhyamā-pratipad ): a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
Gautama was now determined to complete his spiritual quest. At the age of 35, he famously sat in meditation under a sacred fig tree — known as the Bodhi tree — in the town of Bodh Gaya, India, and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment.
After many days, he finally destroyed the fetters of his mind, thereby liberating himself from the cycle of suffering and rebirth, and arose as a fully enlightened being (Skt. samyaksaṃbuddha). Soon thereafter, he attracted a band of followers and instituted a monastic order.
Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had discovered, traveling throughout the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent, and died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in Kushinagar, India.
The south branch of the original fig tree available only in Anuradhapura Sri Lanka is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi.
Buddhist concepts
==Life and the [[world
=[[Saṃsāra]
Samsara is "the cycle of birth and death". Sentient beings crave pleasure and are averse to pain from birth to death. In being controlled by these attitudes, they perpetuate the cycle of conditioned existence and suffering (saṃsāra), and produce the causes and conditions of the next rebirth after death. Each rebirth repeats this process in an involuntary cycle, which Buddhists strive to end by eradicating these causes and conditions, applying the methods laid out by the Buddha and subsequent Buddhists.
Karma
Karma (from Sanskrit: "action, work") in Buddhism is the force that drives saṃsāra—the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being.
Good, skillful deeds (Pāli: "kusala") and bad, unskillful (Pāli: "akusala") actions produce "seeds" in the mind that come to fruition either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.
The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions is called śīla (from Sanskrit: "ethical conduct").
In Buddhism, karma specifically refers to those actions (of body, speech, and mind) that spring from mental intent ("cetana") and bring about a consequence or fruit, (phala) or result (vipāka).
In Theravada Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one's karma, since it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the texts of certain Mahayana sutras (such as the Lotus Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra) claim that reciting or merely hearing their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma.
Some forms of Buddhism (for example, Vajrayana) regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off previous negative karma.
The Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin taught that Amida Buddha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra.
Rebirth
Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception to death.
Buddhism rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in Hinduism and Christianity.
According to Buddhism there ultimately is no such thing as a self independent from the rest of the universe (the doctrine of anatta).
Rebirth in subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic, ever-changing process of "dependent arising" ("pratītyasamutpāda") determined by the laws of cause and effect (karma) rather than that of one being, transmigrating or incarnating from one existence to the next.
Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according to Theravadins, or six according to other schools. These are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence:
Naraka beings: those who live in one of many Narakas (Hells);
Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans, but invisible to most people; an important variety is the hungry ghost;
Animals: sharing space with humans, but considered another type of life;
Human beings: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible;
Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, antigods; not recognized by Theravāda (Mahavihara) tradition as a separate realm;
Devas including Brahmas: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated.
Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the Śuddhāvāsa Worlds (Pure Abodes), can be attained by only skilled Buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis (non-returners). Rebirths in the arupa-dhatu (formless realms) can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas, the highest object of meditation.
According to East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, there is an intermediate state (Tibetan "Bardo") between one life and the next. The orthodox Theravada position rejects this; however there are passages in the Samyutta Nikaya of the Pali Canon (the collection of texts on which the Theravada tradition is based), that seem to lend support to the idea that the Buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next.
Suffering's causes and solution
The Four Noble Truths
The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as central to the teachings of Buddhism, and are said to provide a conceptual framework for Buddhist thought. These four truths explain the nature of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction), its causes, and how it can be overcome.
The four truths are:
The truth of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction)
The truth of the origin of dukkha
The truth of the cessation of dukkha
The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha
The first truth explains the nature of dukkha. Dukkha is commonly translated as “suffering”, “anxiety”, “dissatisfaction”, “unease”, etc., and it is said to have the following three aspects:
the obvious suffering of physical and mental illness, growing old, and dying;
the anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing; and
a subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life, due to the fact that all forms of life are impermanent and constantly changing.
The second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known.
Within the context of the four noble truths, the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving (Pali: tanha) conditioned by ignorance (Pali: avijja).
On a deeper level, the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance (Pali: avijja) of the true nature of things.
The third noble truth is that the complete cessation of dukkha is possible, and the fourth noble truth identifies a path to this cessation.
Noble Eightfold Path
The Dharmachakra represents the Noble Eightfold Path
The Noble Eightfold Path — the fourth of the Buddha's Noble Truths]] — consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the cessation of dukkha.
These eight factors of the Noble Eightfold path are:
Right View (or Right Understanding),
Right Intention (or Right Thought),
Right Speech,
Right Action,
Right Livelihood,
Right Effort,
Right Mindfulness, and
Right Concentration.
Ajahn Sucitto describes the path as "a mandala of interconnected factors that support and moderate each other." The eight factors of the Noble Eightfold path are not to be understood as stages, in which each stage is completed before moving on to the next.
Rather, they are understood as eight significant dimensions of one's behavior—mental, spoken, and bodily—that operate in dependence on one another; taken together, they define a complete path, or way of living.
The eight factors of the path are commonly presented within three divisions (or higher trainings) as shown below:
Division Eightfold factor Sanskrit, Pali Description
Wisdom
(Sanskrit: prajñā,
Pāli: paññā) 1. Right view samyag dṛṣṭi,
sammā ditthi Viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be
2. Right intention samyag saṃkalpa,
sammā sankappa Intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness
Ethical conduct
(Sanskrit: śīla,
Pāli: sīla) 3. Right speech samyag vāca,
sammā-vāca Speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way
4. Right action samyag karman,
sammā kammanta Acting in a non-harmful way
5. Right livelihood samyag ājīvana,
sammā ājīva A non-harmful livelihood
Concentration
(Sanskrit and Pāli: samādhi) 6. Right effort samyag vyāyāma,
sammā vāyāma Making an effort to improve
7. Right mindfulness samyag smṛti,
sammā sati Awareness to see things for what they are with clear consciousness;
being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion
8. Right concentration samyag samādhi,
sammā samādhi Correct meditation or concentration, explained as the first four jhānas
article: Brahmavihara
While he searched for enlightenment, Gautama combined the yoga practice of his teacher Kalama with what later became known as "the immeasurables". Gautama thus invented a new kind of human, one without egotism.
What Thich Nhat Hanh calls the "Four Immeasurable Minds" of love, compassion, joy, and equanimity are also known as brahmaviharas, divine abodes, or simply as four immeasurables.
Pema Chödrön calls them the "four limitless ones".
Of the four, mettā or loving-kindness meditation is perhaps the best known.
The Four Immeasurables are taught as a form of meditation that cultivates "wholesome attitudes towards all sentient beings."
The practitioner prays:
May all sentient beings have happiness and its causes,
May all sentient beings be free of suffering and its causes,
May all sentient beings never be separated from bliss without suffering,
May all sentient beings be in equanimity, free of bias, attachment and anger.
Middle Way
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way (or Middle Path), which is said to have been discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment. The Middle Way has several definitions:
The practice of non-extremism: a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification;
The middle ground between certain metaphysical views (for example, that things ultimately either do or do not exist);
An explanation of Nirvana (perfect enlightenment), a state wherein it becomes clear that all dualities apparent in the world are delusory (see Seongcheol);
Another term for emptiness, the ultimate nature of all phenomena (in the Mahayana branch), a lack of inherent existence, which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness.
Nature of existence
Buddhist scholars have produced a remarkable quantity of intellectual theories, philosophies and world view concepts (see, for example, Abhidharma, Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism). Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study, and some regard it as essential practice.
The concept of liberation (nirvāṇa)—the goal of the Buddhist path—is closely related to overcoming ignorance (avidyā), a fundamental misunderstanding or misperception of the nature of reality. In awakening to the true nature of the self and all phenomena one develops dispassion for the objects of clinging, and is liberated from suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of incessant rebirths (saṃsāra). To this end, the Buddha recommended viewing things as characterized by the three marks of existence.
Three Marks of Existence
The Three Marks of Existence are impermanence, suffering, and not-self.
Impermanence (Pāli: anicca) expresses the Buddhist notion that all compounded or conditioned phenomena (all things and experiences) are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent.
Everything we can experience through our senses is made up of parts, and its existence is dependent on external conditions.
Everything is in constant flux, and so conditions and the thing itself are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Since nothing lasts, there is no inherent or fixed nature to any object or experience.
According to the doctrine of impermanence, life embodies this flux in the aging process, the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra), and in any experience of loss. The doctrine asserts that because things are impermanent, attachment to them is futile and leads to suffering (dukkha).
Suffering (Pāli: दुक्ख dukkha; Sanskrit दुःख duḥkha) is also a central concept in Buddhism.
The word roughly corresponds to a number of terms in English including suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness, sorrow, affliction, anxiety, dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress, misery, and frustration.
Although the term is often translated as "suffering", its philosophical meaning is more analogous to "disquietude" as in the condition of being disturbed.
As such, "suffering" is too narrow a translation with "negative emotional connotations" that can give the impression that the Buddhist view is pessimistic, but Buddhism seeks to be neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic. In English-language Buddhist literature translated from Pāli, "dukkha" is often left untranslated, so as to encompass its full range of meaning.
Not-self (Pāli: anatta; Sanskrit: anātman) is the third mark of existence. Upon careful examination, one finds that no phenomenon is really "I" or "mine"; these concepts are in fact constructed by the mind. In the Nikayas anatta is not meant as a metaphysical assertion, but as an approach for gaining release from suffering.
In fact, the Buddha rejected both of the metaphysical assertions "I have a Self" and "I have no Self" as ontological views that bind one to suffering.
When asked if the self was identical with the body, the Buddha refused to answer. By analyzing the constantly changing physical and mental constituents (skandhas) of a person or object, the practitioner comes to the conclusion that neither the respective parts nor the person as a whole comprise a self.
Dependent arising
The doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda (Sanskrit; Pali: paticcasamuppāda; Tibetan: rten.cing.'brel.bar.'byung.ba; Chinese: 緣起) is an important part of Buddhist metaphysics.
It states that phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. It is variously rendered into English as "dependent origination", "conditioned genesis", "dependent co-arising", "interdependent arising", or "contingency".
The best-known application of the concept of pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of Twelve Nidānas (from Pāli "nidāna" meaning "cause, foundation, source or origin"), which explain the continuation of the cycle of suffering and rebirth (saṃsāra) in detail.
The Twelve Nidānas describe a causal connection between the subsequent characteristics or conditions of cyclic existence, each one giving rise to the next:
Avidyā: ignorance, specifically spiritual ignorance of the nature of reality;
Saṃskāras: literally formations, explained as referring to karma;
Vijñāna: consciousness, specifically discriminative;
Nāmarūpa: literally name and form, referring to mind and body;
Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind-organ;
Sparśa: variously translated contact, impression, stimulation (by a sense object);
Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the "hedonic tone", i.e. whether something is pleasant, unpleasant or neutral;
Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst, but in Buddhism nearly always used to mean craving;
Upādāna: clinging or grasping; the word also means fuel, which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth;
Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. (The Theravada explains this as having two meanings: karma, which produces a new existence, and the existence itself.);
Jāti: literally birth, but life is understood as starting at conception;
Jarāmaraṇa: (old age and death) and also śokaparidevaduḥkhadaurmanasyopāyāsa (sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and misery).
Sentient beings always suffer throughout saṃsāra, until they free themselves from this suffering by attaining Nirvana. Then the absence of the first Nidāna ignorance leads to the absence of the others. Emptiness
Mahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nagarjuna (perhaps c. 150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition.
Nagarjuna's primary contribution to Buddhist philosophy was the systematic exposition of the concept of śūnyatā, or "emptiness", widely attested in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras that emerged in his era.
The concept of emptiness brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta and pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination), to refute the metaphysics of Sarvastivada and Sautrantika (extinct non-Mahayana schools).
For Nagarjuna, it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman; all phenomena (dharmas) are without any svabhava (literally "own-nature" or "self-nature"), and thus without any underlying essence;
they are "empty" of being independent; thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early Buddhism. Nagarjuna's school of thought is known as the Mādhyamaka.
Some of the writings attributed to Nagarjuna made explicit references to Mahayana texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the agamas.
He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system.
Sarvastivada teachings—which were criticized by Nāgārjuna—were reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asanga and were adapted into the Yogacara (Sanskrit: yoga practice) school.
While the Mādhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or non-existence of any ultimately real thing was inappropriate, some exponents of Yogacara asserted that the mind and only the mind is ultimately real (a doctrine known as cittamatra).
Not all Yogacarins asserted that mind was truly existent; Vasubandhu and Asanga in particular did not. These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahayana metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.
Besides emptiness, Mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight (prajñāpāramitā) and Buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha).
There are conflicting interpretations of the tathāgatagarbha in Mahāyāna thought. The idea may be traced to Abhidharma, and ultimately to statements of the Buddha in the Nikāyas.
In Tibetan Buddhism, according to the Sakya school, tathāgatagarbha is the inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind. In Nyingma, tathāgatagarbha also generally refers to inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind.
According to the Gelug school, it is the potential for sentient beings to awaken since they are empty (i.e. dependently originated).
According to the Jonang school, it refers to the innate qualities of the mind that expresses themselves as omniscience etc. when adventitious obscurations are removed.
The "Tathāgatagarbha Sutras" are a collection of Mahayana sutras that present a unique model of Buddha-nature. Even though this collection was generally ignored in India, East Asian Buddhism provides some significance to these texts.
Liberation
Nirvana
Nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali: "Nibbana") means "cessation", "extinction" (of craving and ignorance and therefore suffering and the cycle of involuntary rebirths (saṃsāra)), "extinguished", "quieted", "calmed"; it is also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West.
The term for anybody who has achieved nirvana, including the Buddha, is arahant.
Bodhi (Pāli and Sanskrit, in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of arahants. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but it is more commonly translated into English as "enlightenment".
In Early Buddhism, bodhi carried a meaning synonymous to nirvana, using only some different metaphors to describe the experience, which implies the extinction of raga (greed, craving) dosa (hate, aversion) and moha (delusion).
In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism, the status of nirvana was downgraded in some scriptures, coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained nirvana, and that one needed to attain bodhi to eradicate delusion:
An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth, Enlightenment), and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich, 1992d).
Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing; they merely use different metaphors for the experience.
But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (passion and hatred), with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth.
This interpretation ignores the third fire, delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis, Enlightenment.
Richard F. Gombrich, How Buddhism Began
Therefore, according to Mahayana Buddhism, the arahant has attained only nirvana, thus still being subject to delusion, while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full liberation from delusion as well.
He thus attains bodhi and becomes a buddha. In Theravada Buddhism, bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning as in the early texts, that of being freed from greed, hate and delusion.
The term parinirvana is also encountered in Buddhism, and this generally refers to the complete nirvana attained by the arahant at the moment of death, when the physical body expires. Buddhas
According to Buddhist traditions a Buddha is a fully awakened being who has completely purified his mind of the three poisons of desire, aversion and ignorance.
A Buddha is no longer bound by Samsara, and has ended the suffering which unawakened people experience in life.
Buddhists do not consider Siddhartha Gautama to have been the only Buddha.
The Pali Canon refers to many previous ones (see List of the 28 Buddhas), while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial, rather than historical, origin (see Amitabha or Vairocana as examples, for lists of many thousands Buddha names see Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō numbers 439–448).
A common Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya). according to Theravada
In Theravada doctrine, a person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality; such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas.
After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving, they have reached the end of the cycle of rebirth, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being.
The commentaries to the Pali Canon classify these awakened beings into three types:
Sammasambuddha, usually just called the Buddha, who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the path to awakening to others
Paccekabuddha, who discovers the truth by himself but lacks the skill to teach others
Savakabuddha, who receive the truth directly or indirectly from a Sammasambuddha
Bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate, and delusion. In attaining bodhi, the arahant has overcome these obstacles.
As a further distinction, the extinction of only hatred and greed (in the sensory context) with some residue of delusion, is called anagami.
In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of thought.
Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.
The Buddha's death is seen as an illusion, he is living on in other planes of existence, and monks are therefore permitted to offer "new truths" based on his input.
Mahayana also differs from Theravada in its concept of śūnyatā (that ultimately nothing has existence), and in its belief in bodhisattvas (enlightened people who vow to continue being reborn until all beings can be enlightened).
Celestial Buddhas are individuals who no longer exist on the material plane of existence, but who still aid in the enlightenment of all beings.
Nirvana came to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained Nirvana. Bodhi became a higher attainment that eradicates delusion entirely.
Thus, the Arahant attains Nirvana but not Bodhi, thus still being subject to delusion, while the Buddha attains Bodhi.
The method of self-exertion or "self-power"—without reliance on an external force or being—stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, Pure Land, which is characterized by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amitabha Buddha.
Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and the chanting of homage to his name liberates one at death into the Blissful (安樂), Pure Land (淨土) of Amitabha Buddha.
This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself.
The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only one has faith in the power of that vow or chants his name. Buddha eras
Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism.
A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known Buddha.
This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.
The Gautama Buddha, then, is the Buddha of this era, who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).
In addition, Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes.
A Theravada commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this world element, and not at all in others.
The understandings of this matter reflect widely differing interpretations of basic terms, such as "world realm", between the various schools of Buddhism.
The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few are capable of following the path, so it may be best to rely on the power of the Amitabha Buddha.
Bodhisattvas
Bodhisattva means "enlightenment being", and generally refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood. Traditionally, a bodhisattva is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.
Theravada Buddhism primarily uses the term in relation to Gautama Buddha's previous existences, but has traditionally acknowledged and respected the bodhisattva path as well.
According to Jan Nattier, the term Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") was originally even an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayāna, or the "Bodhisattva Vehicle."
The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, an early and important Mahāyāna text, contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva, and this definition is the following:
Because he has enlightenment as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called.
Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings by practicing six perfections (Skt. pāramitā).
According to the Mahāyāna teachings, these perfections are: giving, discipline, forbearance, effort, meditation, and transcendent wisdom.
A famous saying by the 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-saint Shantideva, which the Dalai Lama often cites as his favourite verse, summarizes the Bodhisattva's intention (Bodhicitta) as follows:
For as long as space endures, and for as long as living beings remain, until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world.
Practice
Devotion
Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists. Devotional practices include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, and chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.
Yoga
Statue of the Buddha in meditation position, Haw Phra Kaew, Vientiane, Laos
Buddhism traditionally incorporates states of meditative absorption (Pali: jhāna; Skt: dhyāna). The most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha.
One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition.
The difference between the Buddha's teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking.
Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness.
Meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the centuries preceding the Buddha. The Buddha built upon the yogis' concern with introspection and developed their meditative techniques, but rejected their theories of liberation.
In Buddhism, mindfulness and clear awareness are to be developed at all times; in pre-Buddhist yogic practices there is no such injunction.
A yogi in the Brahmanical tradition is not to practice while defecating, for example, while a Buddhist monastic should do so.
Religious knowledge or "vision" was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the Buddhist fold.
According to the Samaññaphala Sutta, this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of "meditation" coupled with the perfection of "discipline" (Pali sīla; Skt. śīla).
Some of the Buddha's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of "transcendent wisdom" (Pali paññā; Skt. prajñā) was original.
The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques. They describe meditative practices and states that existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within Buddhism.
Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation.
While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts.
He mentions less likely possibilities as well. Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rig Vedic period.
Refuge in the Three Jewels
Relic depicting footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and triratna, 1st century CE, Gandhāra.
Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: tri-ratna, Pāli: ti-ratana) as the foundation of one's religious practice.
The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf. Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama.
In Mahayana, the person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow or pledge, considered the ultimate expression of compassion.
In Mahayana, too, the Three Jewels are perceived as possessed of an eternal and unchanging essence and as having an irreversible effect: "The Three Jewels have the quality of excellence.
Just as real jewels never change their faculty and goodness, whether praised or reviled, so are the Three Jewels (Refuges), because they have an eternal and immutable essence. These Three Jewels bring a fruition that is changeless, for once one has reached Buddhahood, there is no possibility of falling back to suffering."
The Three Jewels are:
The Buddha.
This is a title for those who have attained Nirvana. See also the Tathāgata and Gautama Buddha.
The Buddha could also be represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha can be viewed as the supreme Refuge: "Buddha is the Unique Absolute Refuge. Buddha is the Imperishable, Eternal, Indestructible and Absolute Refuge."
The Dharma.
The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. It can also, especially in Mahayana, connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality that is inseparable from the Buddha.
Further, from some Mahayana perspectives, the Dharma embodied in the form of a great sutra (Buddhic scripture) can replace the need for a personal teacher and can be a direct and spontaneous gateway into Truth (Dharma).
This is especially said to be the case with the Lotus Sutra. Dr. Hiroshi Kanno writes of this view of the Lotus Sutra: "it is a Dharma-gate of sudden enlightenment proper to the Great Vehicle; it is a Dharma-gate whereby one awakens spontaneously, without resorting to a teacher".
The Sangha.
Those who have attained to any of the Four stages of enlightenment, or simply the congregation of monastic practitioners.
According to the scriptures, Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model. The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana.
The Sangha is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. Buddhist ethics
Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "ethics" or "precept".
It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sila, samadhi, and panya) and the second pāramitā.
It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.
Śīla is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation.
Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in the community, which is external.
According to the Law of Karma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes that would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.
Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behavior.
There are several levels of sila, which correspond to "basic morality" (five precepts), "basic morality with asceticism" (eight precepts), "novice monkhood" (ten precepts) and "monkhood" (Vinaya or Patimokkha).
Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts, which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which add basic asceticism.
The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy, without worries, and can meditate well:
To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms), or ahimsā;
To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft);
To refrain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct;
To refrain from lying (speaking truth always);
To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness (specifically, drugs and alcohol).
The precepts are not formulated as imperatives, but as training rules that laypeople undertake voluntarily to facilitate practice.
In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of dana and ethical conduct themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower heavens is likely, even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is nothing improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment.
In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict, and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional precepts are:
6. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (eat only from sunrise to noon);
7. To refrain from dancing and playing music, wearing jewelry and cosmetics, attending shows and other performances;
8. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats and bedding.
The complete list of ten precepts may be observed by laypeople for short periods. For the complete list, the seventh precept is partitioned into two, and a tenth added:
6. To refrain from taking food at an unseasonable time, that is after the mid-day meal;
7. To refrain from dancing, music, singing and unseemly shows;
8. To refrain from the use of garlands, perfumes, ointments, and from things that tend to beautify and adorn (the person);
9. To refrain from (using) high and luxurious seats (and beds);
10. To refrain from accepting gold and silver;
Monastic life
Buddhist monks performing a ceremony in Hangzhou, China
Vinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. It includes the Patimokkha, a set of 227 rules for monks in the Theravadin recension.
The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differs slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya.
Novice-monks use the ten precepts, which are the basic precepts for monastics.
Regarding the monastic rules, the Buddha constantly reminds his hearers that it is the spirit that counts. On the other hand, the rules themselves are designed to assure a satisfying life, and provide a perfect springboard for the higher attainments.
Monastics are instructed by the Buddha to live as "islands unto themselves". In this sense, living life as the vinaya prescribes it is, as one scholar puts it: "more than merely a means to an end: it is very nearly the end in itself."
In Eastern Buddhism, there is also a distinctive Vinaya and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) for Bodhisattvas, where, for example, the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged (see vegetarianism in Buddhism).
In Japan, this has almost completely displaced the monastic vinaya, and allows clergy to marry.
Meditation
Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena. According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation, samatha meditation (Sanskrit:
śamatha) and vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit:
vipaśyanā)
In Chinese Buddhism, these exist (translated chih kuan), but Chán (Zen) meditation is more popular.
According to Peter Harvey, whenever Buddhism has been healthy, not only monks, nuns, and married lamas, but also more committed lay people have practiced meditation. According to Routledge's Encyclopedia of Buddhism, in contrast, throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times, serious meditation by lay people has been unusual. The evidence of the early texts suggests that at the time of the Buddha, many male and female lay practitioners did practice meditation, some even to the point of proficiency in all eight jhānas (see the next section regarding these).
Samādhi (meditative cultivation): samatha meditation
In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path, samyaksamādhi is "right concentration".
The primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation. Upon development of samādhi, one's mind becomes purified of defilement, calm, tranquil, and luminous.
Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna, Sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna), his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality, eventually obtaining release from all suffering.
The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration, which is needed to achieve insight.
Samatha meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea, which is expanded to one's body, mind and entire surroundings, leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna)
There are many variations in the style of meditation, from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking.
The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath (anapanasati), because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana'.
In Buddhist practice, it is said that while samatha meditation can calm the mind, only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with, which is what leads to knowledge (jñāna;
Pāli ñāṇa) and understanding (prajñā Pāli paññā), and thus can lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna).
When one is in jhana, all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Only understanding (prajñā or vipassana) eradicates the defilements completely. Jhanas are also states that Arahants abide in order to rest.
In Theravāda
In Theravāda Buddhism, the cause of human existence and suffering is identified as craving, which carries with it the various defilements.
These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed, hatred and delusion. These are believed deeply rooted afflictions of the mind that create suffering and stress.
To be free from suffering and stress, these defilements must be permanently uprooted through internal investigation, analyzing, experiencing, and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using jhāna, a technique of the Noble Eightfold Path.
It then leads the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths, Enlightenment and Nibbana. Nibbana is the ultimate goal of Theravadins.
Prajñā (Wisdom): vipassana meditation
Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination,
The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi.
It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining nirvāṇa, through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha (unsatisfactoriness), anicca (impermanence) and anatta (not-self). Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six pāramitās of the Mahayana.
Initially, prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means of listening to sermons (dharma talks), reading, studying, and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging in discourse. Once the conceptual understanding is attained, it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can verify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical level.
Notably, one could in theory attain Nirvana at any point of practice, whether deep in meditation, listening to a sermon, conducting the business of one's daily life, or any other activity.
Zen
Zen Buddhism (禅), pronounced Chán in Chinese, seon in Korean or zen in Japanese (derived from the Sanskrit term dhyāna, meaning "meditation") is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China, Korea and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation.
Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth.
Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai (臨済宗) and Sōtō (曹洞宗), the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the koan (公案, a meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through, and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on shikantaza or "just sitting".
Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox, in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the penetration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self, which is equated with the Buddha himself.
According to Zen master Kosho Uchiyama, when thoughts and fixation on the little "I" are transcended, an Awakening to a universal, non-dual Self occurs:
"When we let go of thoughts and wake up to the reality of life that is working beyond them, we discover the Self that is living universal non-dual life (before the separation into two) that pervades all living creatures and all existence." Thinking and thought must therefore not be allowed to confine and bind one.
Vajrayana and Tantra
Though based upon Mahayana, Tibeto-Mongolian Buddhism is one of the schools that practice Vajrayana or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as Mantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism, or esoteric Buddhism).
It accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice.
Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative practices. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy through ritual, visualization, physical exercises, and meditation as a means of developing the mind.
Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime, or even as little as three years. In the Tibetan tradition, these practices can include sexual yoga, though only for some very advanced practitioners.
History
Philosophical roots
Historically, the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious thought of ancient India during the second half of the first millennium BCE.That was a period of social and religious turmoil, as there was significant discontent with the sacrifices and rituals of Vedic Brahmanism.
It was challenged by numerous new ascetic religious and philosophical groups and teachings that broke with the Brahmanic tradition and rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans.
These groups, whose members were known as shramanas, were a continuation of a non-Vedic strand of Indian thought distinct from Indo-Aryan Brahmanism.
Scholars have reasons to believe that ideas such as samsara, karma (in the sense of the influence of morality on rebirth), and moksha originated in the shramanas, and were later adopted by Brahmin orthodoxy.
A ruined Buddhist temple on Gurubhakthula Konda ((konda meaning "hill" in Telugu) in Ramatheertham village in Vizianagaram, a district of Andhra Pradesh, India
This view is supported by a study of the region where these notions originated. Buddhism arose in Greater Magadha, which stretched from Sravasti, the capital of Kosala in the north-west, to Rajagrha in the south east.
This land, to the east of aryavarta, the land of the Aryas, was recognised as non-Vedic. Other Vedic texts reveal a dislike of the people of Magadha, in all probability because the Magadhas at this time were not Brahmanised. It was not until the 2nd or 3rd centuries BCE that the eastward spread of Brahmanism into Greater Magadha became significant.
Ideas that developed in Greater Magadha prior to this were not subject to Vedic influence.
These include rebirth and karmic retribution that appear in a number of movements in Greater Magadha, including Buddhism.
These movements inherited notions of rebirth and karmic retribution from an earlier culture.
At the same time, these movements were influenced by, and in some respects continued, philosophical thought within the Vedic tradition as reflected e.g. in the Upanishads.
These movements included, besides Buddhism, various skeptics (such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta), atomists (such as Pakudha Kaccayana), materialists (such as Ajita Kesakambali), antinomians (such as Purana Kassapa);
the most important ones in the 5th century BCE were the Ajivikas, who emphasized the rule of fate, the Lokayata (materialists), the Ajnanas (agnostics) and the Jains, who stressed that the soul must be freed from matter.
Many of these new movements shared the same conceptual vocabulary -
atman ("Self"),
buddha ("awakened one"),
dhamma ("rule" or
"law"), karma ("action"),
nirvana ("extinguishing"),
samsara ("eternal recurrence") and
yoga ("spiritual practice").
The shramanas rejected the Veda, and the authority of the brahmans, who claimed they possessed revealed truths not knowable by any ordinary human means.
Moreover, they declared that the entire Brahmanical system was fraudulent: a conspiracy of the brahmans to enrich themselves by charging exorbitant fees to perform bogus rites and give useless advice.
A particular criticism of the Buddha was Vedic animal sacrifice.
The Buddha declared that priests reciting the Vedas were like the blind leading the blind.
According to him, those priests who had memorized the Vedas really knew nothing.
He also mocked the Vedic "hymn of the cosmic man".However, the Buddha was not anti-Vedic, and declared that the Veda in its true form was declared by "Kashyapa" to certain rishis, who by severe penances had acquired the power to see by divine eyes.
He names the Vedic rishis, and declared that the original Veda of the rishis was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced animal sacrifices.
The Buddha says that it was on this alteration of the true Veda that he refused to pay respect to the Vedas of his time.
He declared that the primary goal of Upanishadic thought, the Atman, was in fact non-existent, and, having explained that Brahminical attempts to achieve liberation at death were futile, proposed his new idea of liberation in life.
However, he did not denounce the union with Brahman, or the idea of the self uniting with the Self.
At the same time, the traditional Brahminical religion itself gradually underwent profound changes, transforming it into what is recognized as early Hinduism.
In particular, the brahmans thus developed "philosophical systems of their own, meeting the new ideas with adaptations of their doctrines".
Indian Buddhism
The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into five periods: Early Buddhism (occasionally called Pre-sectarian Buddhism), Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarian Buddhism:
The period of the Early Buddhist schools, Early Mahayana Buddhism, Later Mahayana Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism (also called Vajrayana Buddhism).
Pre-sectarian Buddhism
Pre-sectarian Buddhism is the earliest phase of Buddhism, recognized by nearly all scholars. Its main scriptures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas or Agamas.
Certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout the early texts, so most scholars conclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught something similar to the Three marks of existence, the Five Aggregates, Dependent origination, Karma and Rebirth, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and Nirvana.
Some scholars disagree, and have proposed many other theories.
Early Buddhist schools
According to the scriptures, soon after the parinirvāṇa (from Sanskrit: "highest extinguishment") of Gautama Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held. As with any ancient Indian tradition, transmission of teaching was done orally.
The primary purpose of the assembly was to collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no errors occurred in oral transmission.
In the first council, Ānanda, a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant, was called upon to recite the discourses (sūtras, Pāli suttas) of the Buddha, and, according to some sources, the abhidhamma. Upāli, another disciple, recited the monastic rules (vinaya).
Scholars regard the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exaggerated if not entirely fictitious.
According to most scholars, at some period after the Second Council the Sangha began to break into separate factions.The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred.
According to the Dipavamsa of the Pāli tradition, they started immediately after the Second Council, the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN, the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it was in the time of Asoka and the Mahasanghika tradition places it much later, nearly 100 BCE.
The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahāsāṅghikas.
The fortunate survival of accounts from both sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. The Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism.
The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika.
This contradicts the Mahasanghikas' own vinaya, which shows them as on the same, winning side.
The Mahāsāṅghikas argued that the Sthaviras were trying to expand the vinaya and may also have challenged what they perceived were excessive claims or inhumanly high criteria for arhatship. Both parties, therefore, appealed to tradition.
The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools, one of which was the Theravāda school. Originally, these schisms were caused by disputes over vinaya, and monks following different schools of thought seem to have lived happily together in the same monasteries, but eventually, by about 100 CE if not earlier, schisms were being caused by doctrinal disagreements too.
Following (or leading up to) the schisms, each Saṅgha started to accumulate an Abhidharma, a detailed scholastic reworking of doctrinal material appearing in the Suttas, according to schematic classifications.
These Abhidharma texts do not contain systematic philosophical treatises, but summaries or numerical lists.
Scholars generally date these texts to around the 3rd century BCE, 100 to 200 years after the death of the Buddha.
Therefore the seven Abhidharma works are generally claimed not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of disciples and great scholars.
Every school had its own version of the Abhidharma, with different theories and different texts. The different Abhidharmas of the various schools did not agree with each other. Scholars disagree on whether the Mahasanghika school had an Abhidhamma Pitaka or not.
Early Mahayana Buddhism
A Buddhist triad depicting, left to right, a Kushan, the future buddha Maitreya, Gautama Buddha, the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd—3rd century. Musée Guimet
The origins of Mahāyāna, which formed between 100 BCE and 100 AD,are still not completely understood.
The earliest views of Mahāyāna Buddhism in the West assumed that it existed as a separate school in competition with the so-called "Hīnayāna" schools.
The split was on the order of the European Protestant Reformation, which divided Christians into Catholic and Protestant.
Due to the veneration of buddhas and bodhisattvas, Mahāyāna was often interpreted as a more devotional, lay-inspired form of Buddhism, with supposed origins in stūpa veneration.
The old views of Mahāyāna as a lay-inspired sect are now largely considered misguided and wrong.
There is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals, and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. Initially it was known as Bodhisattvayāna (the "Vehicle of the Bodhisattvas").
Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never had nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism, and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the Mahāyāna formally belonged to an early school.
This continues today with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lineage in East Asia, and the Mūlasarvāstivāda ordination lineage in Tibetan Buddhism.
Therefore Mahāyāna was never a separate rival sect of the early schools.
From Chinese monks visiting India, we now know that both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side.
Large empty outline of a person in a rock cliff Buddhas of Bamiyan: Vairocana before and after destruction by the Taliban in 2001
The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century CE, distinguishes Mahāyāna from Hīnayāna as follows:
Both adopt one and the same Vinaya, and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offences, and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths. Those who venerate the bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sūtras are called the Mahāyānists, while those who do not perform these are called the Hīnayānists.
Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts.
These Mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into China by Lokakṣema, the first translator of Mahāyāna sūtras into Chinese during the 2nd century CE.
Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the Prajñāpāramitā series, along with texts concerning Akṣobhya Buddha, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.
Late Mahayana Buddhism
During the period of Late Mahayana Buddhism, four major types of thought developed: Madhyamaka, Yogacara, Tathagatagarbha, and Buddhist Logic as the last and most recent.
In India, the two main philosophical schools of the Mahayana were the Madhyamaka and the later Yogacara.
According to Dan Lusthaus, Madhyamaka and Yogacara have a great deal in common, and the commonality stems from early Buddhism.
There were no great Indian teachers associated with tathagatagarbha thought.
Vajrayana (Esoteric Buddhism)
Scholarly research concerning Esoteric Buddhism is still in its early stages and has a number of problems that make research difficult:
Vajrayana Buddhism was influenced by Hinduism, and therefore research must include explore Hinduism as well.
The scriptures of Vajrayana have not yet been put in any kind of order.
Ritual must be examined as well, not just doctrine.
Development of Buddhism
Buddhist proselytism at the time of emperor Ashoka (260–218 BCE).
Coin depicting Indo-Greek king Menander, who, according to Buddhist tradition records in the Milinda Panha, converted to the Buddhist faith and became an arhat in the 2nd century BCE . (British Museum)
Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, who was a public supporter of the religion.
The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands—particularly to the Iranian-speaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia, beyond the Mauryas' northwest border, and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India.
These two missions, in opposite directions, would ultimately lead, in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China, and in the second case, to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.
This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India.
According to the edicts of Aśoka, emissaries were sent to various countries west of India to spread Buddhism (Dharma), particularly in eastern provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire, and even farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean.
It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries.
The gradual spread of Buddhism into adjacent areas meant that it came into contact with new ethnical groups.
During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences, from Persian and Greek civilization,
to changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions—themselves influenced by Buddhism. Striking examples of this syncretistic development can be seen in the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom, and in the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra.
A Greek king, Menander, has even been immortalized in the Buddhist canon.
The Theravada school spread south from India in the 3rd century BCE, to Sri Lanka and Thailand and Burma and later also Indonesia.
The Dharmagupta school spread (also in 3rd century BCE) north to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria (Afghanistan).
The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE, though the literary sources are all open to question.
The first documented translation efforts by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin.
In the 2nd century CE, Mahayana Sutras spread to China, and then to Korea and Japan, and were translated into Chinese. During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from the 8th century onwards), Buddhism spread from India to Tibet and Mongolia.
Buddhism today
Polish Buddhists
By the late Middle Ages, Buddhism had become virtually extinct in India, and although it continued to exist in surrounding countries, its influence was no longer expanding. It is now again gaining strength worldwide.
Estimates of the number of Buddhist followers by scholars range from 550 million to 1.691 billion.
Most scholars classify similar numbers of people under a category they call "Chinese folk" or "traditional" religion, an amalgam of various traditions that includes Buddhism.
Formal membership varies between communities, but basic lay adherence is often defined in terms of a traditional formula in which the practitioner takes refuge in The Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings of the Buddha), and the Sangha (the Buddhist community).
Estimates are uncertain for several reasons:
difficulties in defining who counts as a Buddhist;
syncretism among the Eastern religions. Buddhism is practiced by adherents alongside many other religious traditions- including Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, traditional religions, shamanism, and animism- throughout East and Southeast Asia.
difficulties in estimating the number of Buddhists who do not have congregational memberships and often do not participate in public ceremonies;
official policies on religion in several historically Buddhist countries that make accurate assessments of religious adherence more difficult; most notably China, Vietnam and North Korea. In many current and former Communist governments in Asia, government policies may discourage adherents from reporting their religious identity, or may encourage official counts to underestimate religious adherence.
China and India are now starting to fund Buddhist shrines in various Asian countries as they compete for influence in the region.
Late 20th Century Buddhist Movements
A number of modern movements or tendencies in Buddhism emerged during the second half of the 20th Century, including the Dalit Buddhist movement(also sometimes called 'neo-Buddhism'), Engaged Buddhism, and the further development of various Western Buddhist traditions.
Demographics
Percentage of cultural/nominal adherents of combined Buddhism with its related religions (according to the highest estimates).
According to one analysis, Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion in the world behind Christianity, Islam and Hinduism. The monks' order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha, is among the oldest organizations on earth.
Buddhism was the first world religionand was the world's largest religion in the first half of the 20th century — in 1951 Buddhism was the world's largest religion with 520 million adherents. By comparison, the second largest was Christianity with 500 million adherents.
Theravada Buddhism, using Sanskrit and Pāli as its scriptural languages, is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Burma. The Dalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. R. Ambedkar) also practices Theravada. Approximately 124 million adherents.
East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use Chinese scriptures are dominant in most of China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Vietnam as well as such communities within Indochina, Southeast Asia and the West.
Vietnam and Singapore are major concentrations of Mahayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia. Approximately 500 million to one billion.
Tibetan Buddhism is found in Bhutan, Nepal, Mongolia, areas of India (it's the majority religion in Ladakh; significant population in Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim), China (particularly in Tibet and Inner Mongolia), and Russia (Kalmyk Autonomous Republic). Approximately 20 million adherents.
Most Buddhist groups in the West are at least nominally affiliated with one of these three traditions.
At the present time, the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world, and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local languages.
While in the West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East it is regarded as familiar and traditional. Buddhists in Asia are frequently well organized and well funded.
In a number of countries, it is recognized as an official religion and receives state support. Modern influences increasingly lead to new forms of Buddhism that significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices.
Schools and traditions
Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Theravada or Mahayana.This classification is also used by some scholars and is the one ordinarily used in the English language.
An alternative scheme used by some scholars divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada, East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism.
Some scholars use other schemes. Buddhists themselves have a variety of other schemes.
Hinayana (literally "lesser vehicle") is used by Mahayana followers to name the family of early philosophical schools and traditions from which contemporary Theravada emerged, but as this term is rooted in the Mahayana viewpoint and can be considered derogatory,
a variety of other terms are increasingly used instead, including Śrāvakayāna, Nikaya Buddhism, early Buddhist schools, sectarian Buddhism, conservative Buddhism, mainstream Buddhism and non-Mahayana Buddhism.
Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosophical outlook, or treat the same concepts as central.
Each tradition, however, does have its own core concepts, and some comparisons can be drawn between them.
For example, according to one Buddhist ecumenical organization, several concepts common to both major Buddhist branches:
Both accept the Buddha as their teacher.
Both accept the Middle way, Dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Three marks of existence.
Both accept that members of the laity and of the sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi).
Both consider buddhahood the highest attainment.
Theravada ("Doctrine of the Elders", or "Ancient Doctrine") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively conservative, and generally closest to early Buddhism.
This school is derived from the Vibhajjavāda grouping that emerged amongst the older Sthavira group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council (c. 250 BCE).
This school gradually declined on the Indian subcontinent, but its branch in Sri Lanka and South East Asia continues to survive.
The Theravada school bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the Pāli Canon and its commentaries.
After being orally transmitted for a few centuries, its scriptures, the Pali Canon, were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE, in Sri Lanka, at what the Theravada usually reckon as the fourth council.
It is also one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the complete set of its canon into writing.
The Sutta collections and Vinaya texts of the Pāli Canon (and the corresponding texts in other versions of the Tripitaka), are generally considered by modern scholars to be the earliest Buddhist literature, and they are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism.
Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia as well as small portions of China, Vietnam, Malaysia and Bangladesh. It has a growing presence in Europe and America.
Theravadin Buddhists think that personal effort is required to realize rebirth. Meditation is done by forest monks for the most part, while village monks teach and serve their lay communities. Laypersons can perform good actions, producing merit that can be traded to the gods who may reward it with material benefits.
Mahayana traditions
Chinese and [[Wikipedia:Central Asian|Central Asian]] monks. Bezeklik, Eastern Tarim Basin, China, 9th–10th century. (National Institute of Informatics and the Tōyō Bunko)
Mahayana Buddhism flourished in India from the 5th century CE onwards, during the dynasty of the Guptas. Mahāyāna centres of learning were established, the most important one being the Nālandā University in north-eastern India.
Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the Mahayana Sutras. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a manifestation of the Buddha himself, and faith in and veneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e.g. the Lotus Sutra and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra) to lay the foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood itself.
Native Mahayana Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, parts of Russia and most of Vietnam (also commonly referred to as "Eastern Buddhism").
The Buddhism practiced in Tibet, the Himalayan regions, and Mongolia is also Mahayana in origin, but is discussed below under the heading of Vajrayana (also commonly referred to as "Northern Buddhism".
There are a variety of strands in Eastern Buddhism, of which "the Pure Land school of Mahayana is the most widely practised today.".In most of this area however, they are fused into a single unified form of Buddhism.
In Japan in particular, they form separate denominations with the five major ones being: Nichiren, peculiar to Japan;
In Korea, nearly all Buddhists belong to the Chogye school, which is officially Son (Zen), but with substantial elements from other traditions.
The Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism spread to China, Mongolia, and Tibet. In Tibet, Vajrayana has always been a main component of Tibetan Buddhism, while in China it formed a separate sect.
However, Vajrayana Buddhism became extinct in China but survived in elements of Japan's Shingon and Tendai sects.
There are differing views as to just when Vajrayāna and its tantric practice started. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Śākyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are esoteric teachings, they were passed on orally first and only written down long after the Buddha's other teachings.
Nālandā University became a center for the development of Vajrayāna theory and continued as the source of leading-edge Vajrayāna practices up through the 11th century. These practices, scriptures and theories were transmitted to China, Tibet, Indochina and Southeast Asia.
China generally received Indian transmission up to the 11th century including tantric practice, while a vast amount of what is considered Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayāna) stems from the late (9th–12th century) Nālandā tradition.
In one of the first major contemporary academic treatises on the subject, Fairfield University professor Ronald M. Davidson argues that the rise of Vajrayana was in part a reaction to the changing political climate in India at the time.
With the fall of the Gupta dynasty, in an increasingly fractious political environment, institutional Buddhism had difficulty attracting patronage, and the folk movement led by siddhas became more prominent.
After perhaps two hundred years, it had begun to get integrated into the monastic establishment.
Vajrayana combined and developed a variety of elements, a number of which had already existed for centuries. In addition to the Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.
Buddhist texts
Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety.
Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of value on learning the various texts.
Some schools venerate certain texts as religious objects in themselves, while others take a more scholastic approach.
Buddhist scriptures are mainly written in Pāli, Tibetan, Mongolian, and Chinese. Some texts still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.
Unlike many religions, Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions.
However, some scholars have referred to the Vinaya Pitaka and the first four Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka as the common core of all Buddhist traditions.
This could be considered misleading, as Mahāyāna considers these merely a preliminary, and not a core, teaching.
The Tibetan Buddhists have not even translated most of the āgamas (though theoretically they recognize them) and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or laity in China and Japan.
Other scholars say there is no universally accepted common core.
The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy.
The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative, while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own vinaya.
The Pāli sutras, along with other, closely related scriptures, are known to the other schools as the āgamas.
Over the years, various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism.
In the Theravada tradition, condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks.
Later in Sri Lanka, the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture.
Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures, with the emphasis on Zen, along with other classics of Eastern philosophy, such as the Tao Te Ching, into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s.
More recently, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single, combined document of Buddhist principles in "The Buddha and His Dhamma". Other such efforts have persisted to present day, but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions.
Pāli Tipitaka
Pāli Canon
Vinaya Pitaka
Sutta Pitaka
The Pāli Tipitaka, which means "three baskets", refers to the Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
The Vinaya Pitaka contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as explanations of why and how these rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
The Sutta Pitaka contains discourses ascribed to Gautama Buddha. The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains material often described as systematic expositions of the Gautama Buddha's teachings.
The Pāli Tipitaka is the only early Tipitaka (Sanskrit: Tripiṭaka) to survive intact in its original language, but a number of early schools had their own recensions of the Tipitaka featuring much of the same material.
We have portions of the Tipitakas of the Sārvāstivāda, Dharmaguptaka, Sammitya, Mahāsaṅghika, Kāśyapīya, and Mahīśāsaka schools, most of which survive in Chinese translation only.
According to some sources, some early schools of Buddhism had five or seven pitakas.
According to the scriptures, soon after the death of the Buddha, the first Buddhist council was held; a monk named Mahākāśyapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided. The goal of the council was to record the Buddha's teachings. Upāli recited the vinaya.
Ānanda, the Buddha's personal attendant, was called upon to recite the dhamma. These became the basis of the Tripitaka.
However, this record was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting, and was committed to text in the last century BCE. Both the sūtras and the vinaya of every Buddhist school contain a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma,
commentaries on other teachings, cosmological and cosmogonical texts, stories of the Gautama Buddha's previous lives, and various other subjects.
Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically "Theravadin", but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings.
According to Peter Harvey, it contains material at odds with later Theravadin orthodoxy. He states: "The Theravadins, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period."
Mahayana sutras
The Tripiṭaka Koreana in South Korea, an edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon carved and preserved in over 81,000 wood printing blocks.
The Mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of Buddhist scriptures that the Mahayana Buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the Buddha.
Some adherents of Mahayana accept both the early teachings (including in this the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which was criticized by Nagarjuna and is in fact opposed to early Buddhist thought) and the Mahayana sutras as authentic teachings of Gautama Buddha, and claim they were designed for different types of persons and different levels of spiritual understanding.
The Mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the Buddha's deeper, more advanced doctrines, reserved for those who follow the bodhisattva path.
That path is explained as being built upon the motivation to liberate all living beings from unhappiness. Hence the name Mahāyāna (lit., the Great Vehicle).
According to Mahayana tradition, the Mahayana sutras were transmitted in secret, came from other Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, or were preserved in non-human worlds because human beings at the time could not understand them:
Some of our sources maintain the authenticity of certain other texts not found in the canons of these schools (the early schools).
These texts are those held genuine by the later school, not one of the eighteen, which arrogated to itself the title of Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle'. According to the Mahayana historians these texts were admittedly unknown to the early schools of Buddhists.
However, they had all been promulgated by the Buddha.
[The Buddha's) followers on earth, the sravakas ('pupils'), had not been sufficiently advanced to understand them, and hence were not given them to remember, but they were taught to various supernatural beings and then preserved in such places as the Dragon World.
Approximately six hundred Mahayana sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations. In addition, East Asian Buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded by scholars as of Chinese rather than Indian origin.
Generally, scholars conclude that the Mahayana scriptures were composed from the 1st century CE onwards: "Large numbers of Mahayana sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century",
five centuries after the historical Gautama Buddha. Some of these had their roots in other scriptures composed in the 1st century BCE.
It was not until after the 5th century CE that the Mahayana sutras started to influence the behavior of mainstream Buddhists in India:
"But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the same period, very different—in fact seemingly older—ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior, and old and established Hinnayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported."
These texts were apparently not universally accepted among Indian Buddhists when they appeared; the pejorative label hinayana was applied by Mahayana supporters to those who rejected the Mahayana sutras.
Only the Theravada school does not include the Mahayana scriptures in its canon.
As the modern Theravada school is descended from a branch of Buddhism that diverged and established itself in Sri Lanka prior to the emergence of the Mahayana texts,
debate exists as to whether the Theravada were historically included in the hinayana designation; in the modern era, this label is seen as derogatory, and is generally avoided.
Scholar Isabelle Onians asserts that although "the Mahāyāna ... very occasionally referred contemptuously to earlier Buddhism as the Hinayāna, the Inferior Way," "the preponderance of this name in the secondary literature is far out of proportion to occurrences in the Indian texts."
She notes that the term Śrāvakayāna was "the more politically correct and much more usual" term used by Mahāyānists.
Jonathan Silk has argued that the term "Hinayana" was used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any given occasion, and did not refer to any definite grouping of Buddhists.
Comparative studies
Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects.
For example, Buddhism's emphasis on the Middle way not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various differing beliefs, customs and institutions in countries where it has resided throughout its history.
Also, its moral and spiritual parallels with other systems of thought—for example, with various tenets of Christianity—have been subjects of close study.
In addition, the Buddhist concept of dependent origination has been compared to modern scientific thought, as well as Western metaphysics.
Is Buddhism a religion?
There are differences of opinion on the question of whether or not Buddhism should be considered a religion. Many sources commonly refer to Buddhism as a religion. For example:
Peter Harvey states: "The English term 'Buddhism' correctly indicates that the religion is characterized by devotion to 'the Buddha', 'Buddhas', or 'buddhahood'."
Joseph Goldstein states: "Although there are many difference among the various religions of the world, and among the various schools of Buddhism itself, there is also a great deal in common..."
Other sources note that the answer to this question depends upon how religion is defined. For example:
Surya Das states: "For Buddhism is less a theology or religion than a promise that certain meditative practices and mind trainings can effectively show us how to awaken our Buddha-nature and liberate us from suffering and confusion."
B. Alan Wallace states: "When we in the West first engage with Buddhism, it is almost inevitable that we bring out one of our familiar stereotypes and apply it to Buddhism, calling it simply a 'religion.'...
But Buddhism has never been simply a religion as we define it in the West. From the very beginning it has also had philosophical elements, as well as empirical and rational elements that may invite the term 'science.'"
Rupert Gethin states: "I am not concerned here to pronounce on a question that is sometimes asked of Buddhism: is it a religion? Obviously it depends on how one defines ‘a religion’.
What is certain, however, is that Buddhism does not involve belief in a creator God who has control over human destiny, nor does it seek to define itself by reference to a creed; as Edward Conze has pointed out, it took over 2,000 years and a couple of Western converts to Buddhism to provide it with a creed.
On the other hand, Buddhism views activities that would be generally understood as religious—such as devotional practices and rituals—as a legitimate, useful, and even essential part of the practice and training that leads to the cessation of suffering.
Gethin points out that some key differences between Buddhism and conventionally considered Western religions are that Buddhism does not assert a belief in a creator god, nor does it define itself by a particular creed.
On the other hand, Gethin notes, Buddhist practice often includes devotional practices and ritual, which are typically associated with religious belief.
{Wiki|Damien Keown}} states: "Problems [...] confront us as soon as we try to define what Buddhism is. Is it a religion? A philosophy? A way of life? A code of ethics?
It is not easy to classify Buddhism as any of these things, and it challenges us to rethink some of these categories.
What, for example, do we mean by ‘religion’? Most people would say that religion has something to do with belief in God. [...] If belief in God in this sense is the essence of religion, then Buddhism cannot be a religion. [...]
Some have suggested that a new category – that of the ‘non-theistic’ religion – is needed to encompass Buddhism. Another possibility is that our original definition is simply too narrow.
The Dalai Lama states: "From one viewpoint, Buddhism is a religion, from another viewpoint Buddhism is a science of mind and not a religion. Buddhism can be a bridge between these two sides.
Therefore, with this conviction I try to have closer ties with scientists, mainly in the fields of cosmology, psychology, neurobiology and physics. In these fields there are insights to share, and to a certain extent we can work together."
Ilkka_Pyysiäinen states: "There are thus great difficulties involved in conceptualizing religion as belief in god(s), superhuman agents, etc., although we intuitively think that some such beings, nevertheless, are essential in religion.
As is well-known, Buddhism is the favorite example of scholars who have argued that we should find some other way of defining religion than the one based on the idea of belief in gods or superhuman beings." and "Buddhism does not have to be the problematic touchstone for a global concept of religion."
Martin Southwold states: "It is argued that Buddhism, though non-theistic, resembles other religions in depending on mystical notions; it is shown how this contributes to understanding the social functions of religions."
Walpola Rahula states: "The question has often been asked: Is Buddhism a religion or a philosophy? It does not matter what you call it. Buddhism remains what it is whatever label you may put on it. The label is immaterial.
Even the label 'Buddhism' which we give to the teaching of the Buddha is of little importance.
The name one gives it is inessential. What's in a name? That which we call a rose, By any other name would smell as sweet. In the same way Truth needs no label: it is neither Buddhist, Christian, Hindu nor Moslem.
It is not the monopoly of anybody. Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understanding of Truth, and they produce harmful prejudices in men's minds."