Difference between revisions of "Theravāda"
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− | Theravada, Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda is literally "the Teaching of the Elders." The name comes from the ancestral Sthaviravada, from which the Theravadins claim descent. After unsuccessfully trying to modify the Vinaya, a small group of 'elderly members' i.e. sthaviras broke away from the majority during the Second Buddhist council, giving rise to the Sthaviravada. | + | {{DisplayImages|952|37|1169|127|1301|2293|3773|965|4076|1244|2948|2894}}{{DisplayImages|606|3777|1867|4482|3435|1105|3056|1712|1031|2542|3987|37}} |
+ | [[Theravada]], [[Sanskrit]]: {{SanskritBig|[[स्थविरवाद]]}} [[sthaviravāda]] is literally "the [[Teaching of the Elders]]." The [[name]] comes from the ancestral [[Sthaviravada]], from which the [[Theravadins]] claim descent. After unsuccessfully trying to modify the [[Vinaya]], a small group of 'elderly members' i.e. [[sthaviras]] broke away from the majority during the [[Second Buddhist council]], giving rise to the [[Sthaviravada]]. | ||
− | For many centuries, it has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (now about 70% of the population) | + | Unlike [[Mahayanists]], [[Theravadins]] follow crypto-realist [[Abhidharma]]. |
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+ | The term [[Theravāda Buddhism]] refers, first, to a "school" and closely related "orientations" within the history of [[Buddhist monasticism]] and, second, to [[forms]] of [[Buddhist]] [[religious]], {{Wiki|political}}, and {{Wiki|social}} [[life]] in various [[Buddhist]] countries. | ||
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+ | Although these two aspects of [[Theravāda Buddhism]] must be {{Wiki|distinguished}}, they overlap and interact in various ways at different points in [[Theravāda]] history. | ||
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+ | In the {{Wiki|present}} article, the specifically [[monastic]] aspects will receive priority, but reference will be made to the civilizational [[dimension]] as well. | ||
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+ | For many centuries, it has been the predominant [[religion]] of [[Sri Lanka]] (now about 70% of the population) and most of continental {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}} ([[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], {{Wiki|Myanmar}}, [[Thailand]]). | ||
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+ | [[Theravada]] is also practiced by minorities in parts of [[southwest]] [[China]] (mainly by the Shan and Tai {{Wiki|ethnic}} groups), [[Vietnam]] (by the {{Wiki|Khmer}} Krom), {{Wiki|Bangladesh}} (by the {{Wiki|ethnic}} groups of Baruas, Chakma, Magh, and Tanchangya), {{Wiki|Malaysia}} and {{Wiki|Indonesia}}, while recently gaining [[popularity]] in {{Wiki|Singapore}} and the {{Wiki|Western}} [[world]]. | ||
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+ | Today, [[Theravada Buddhists]], otherwise known as [[Theravadins]], number over 150 million worldwide, and during the {{Wiki|past}} few decades [[Theravada Buddhism]] has begun to take [[root]] in the [[West]][a] and in the [[Buddhist]] revival in [[India]]. | ||
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==History== | ==History== | ||
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− | [[Image:Mahabodhitemple.jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[Mahabodhi Temple]] in [[Bodh Gaya]], built by Indian emperor [[Ashoka the Great]]. The location where [[Gautama Buddha]] is said to have attained [[Enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]]. One of the most important places of [[Buddhist pilgrimage]]. ]] | + | ===[[Indian origins]]=== |
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+ | [[Image:Mahabodhitemple.jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[Mahabodhi Temple]] in [[Bodh Gaya]], built by [[Indian]] [[emperor]] [[Ashoka the Great]]. The location where [[Gautama Buddha]] is said to have [[attained]] [[Enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]]. One of the most important places of [[Buddhist pilgrimage]]. ]] | ||
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+ | According to its [[own]] accounts, the [[Theravāda]] school is fundamentally derived from the [[Vibhajjavāda]] (or "[[doctrine of analysis]]") grouping which was a [[division]] of the [[Sthavira]] ("[[Elders]]") {{Wiki|stream}}. The [[Sthavira]] were in turn a breakaway group from the majority [[Mahāsāṃghika]] during the [[Second Buddhist council]]. | ||
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+ | [[Theravadin]] accounts of its [[own]] origins mention that it received the teachings that were agreed upon the [[Third Buddhist Council]], around 250 BCE, and these teachings were known as the [[Vibhajjavada]]. The [[Vibhajjavādins]] in turn split into four groups: the [[Mahīśāsaka]], [[Kāśyapīya]], [[Dharmaguptaka]], and the [[Tāmraparnīya]]. | ||
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+ | ===[[Sri Lanka]]=== | ||
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+ | The [[Theravada]] is descended from the [[Tāmraparnīya]], which means "the [[Sri Lankan]] [[lineage]]." In the 7th century CE, {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[pilgrims]] [[Xuanzang]] and [[Yijing]] refer to the [[Buddhist]] schools in [[Sri Lanka]] as [[Shàngzuòbù]] (Ch. [[上座部]]), corresponding to the [[Sanskrit]] "[[Sthavira]]" and the [[Pali]] "[[Thera]]." The school has been using the [[name]] [[Theravada]] for itself in a written [[form]] since at least the 4th century, when the term appears in the [[Dipavamsa]]. | ||
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+ | ====[[Transmission to Sri Lanka]]==== | ||
− | According to | + | According to [[Buddhist scholar]] {{Wiki|A.K. Warder}}, the [[Theravada]] |
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− | + | <blockquote>... spread rapidly [[south]] from [[Avanti]] into {{Wiki|Maharastra}} and [[Andhra]] and down to the [[Chola]] country ([[Kanchi]]), as well as [[Ceylon]]. For some [[time]] they maintained themselves in [[Avanti]] as well as in their new territories, but gradually they tended to regroup themselves in the [[south]], the Great [[Vihara]] ([[Mahavihara]]) in [[Anuradhapura]], the capital of [[Ceylon]], becoming the main centre of their [[tradition]], [[Kanchi]] a secondary center and the northern regions apparently relinquished to other schools.</blockquote> | |
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− | + | According to the [[Pāli]] chronicles of the {{Wiki|Sinhalese}} [[tradition]], [[Buddhism]] was first brought to [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Arahant]] [[Mahinda]], who is believed to have been the son of the [[wikipedia:Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] [[emperor]] [[Asoka]], in the third century BCE, as a part of the [[dhammaduta]] ({{Wiki|missionary}}) [[activities]] of the [[Asokan]] {{Wiki|era}}. In [[Sri Lanka]], [[Arahant]] [[Mahinda]] established the [[Mahāvihāra]] [[Monastery]] of [[Anuradhapura]]. | |
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====Subdivisions==== | ====Subdivisions==== | ||
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− | When the Chinese monk Faxian visited the island in the early 5th century CE, he noted 5000 monks at Abhayagiri, 3000 monks at the Mahāvihāra, and 2000 monks at the Cetiyapabbatavihāra. | + | Over much of the early history of [[Buddhism]] in [[Sri Lanka]], three subdivisions of [[Theravāda]] existed in [[Sri Lanka]], consisting of the [[monks]] of the [[Mahāvihāra]], [[Abhayagiri Vihāra]], and the [[Jetavana]] [[Vihāra]]. [[Mahāvihāra]] is the first [[tradition]] to be established, while [[Abhayagiri Vihāra]] and [[Jetavana]] [[Vihāra]] is established by [[monks]] who have broke away from [[Mahāvihāra]] [[tradition]]. According to {{Wiki|A.K. Warder}}, the [[Indian]] [[Mahīśāsaka]] [[sect]] also established itself in [[Sri Lanka]] alongside the [[Theravāda]], into which they were later absorbed. Northern regions of [[Sri Lanka]] also seem to have been ceded to sects from [[India]] at certain times. |
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+ | [[Image:Dambulla 16.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Buddha painting in [[Dambulla cave temple]] in [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Buddhist]] cave-temple complex was established as a [[Buddhist Monastery]] in the 3rd century BC. [[Caves]] were converted into a [[temple]] in the 1st century BC.]] | ||
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+ | When the {{Wiki|Chinese}} [[monk]] [[Faxian]] visited the [[island]] in the early 5th century CE, he noted 5000 [[monks]] at [[Abhayagiri]], 3000 [[monks]] at the [[Mahāvihāra]], and 2000 [[monks]] at the [[Cetiyapabbatavihāra]]. | ||
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+ | =====[[Mahayana-influences]]===== | ||
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+ | Over the centuries, the [[Abhayagiri]] [[Theravādins]] maintained close relations with [[Indian]] [[Buddhists]] and adopted many new teachings from [[India]]. including many [[elements]] from [[Mahāyāna]] teachings, while the [[Jetavana]] [[Theravādins]] adopted [[Mahāyāna]] to a lesser extent. | ||
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+ | [[Xuanzang]] wrote of two major divisions of [[Theravāda]] in [[Sri Lanka]], referring to the [[Abhayagiri]] [[tradition]] as the "[[Mahāyāna Sthaviras]]," and the [[Mahāvihāra]] [[tradition]] as the "[[Hīnayāna]] [[Sthaviras]]." | ||
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+ | Akira Hirakawa notes that the surviving [[Pāli]] commentaries ([[Aṭṭhakathā]]) of the [[Mahāvihāra]] school, when examined closely, also include a number of positions that agree with [[Mahāyāna]] teachings. [[Kalupahana]] notes the same for the [[Visuddhimagga]], the most important [[Theravada]] commentary. | ||
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+ | In the 8th century CE, it is known that both [[Mahāyāna]] and the [[esoteric]] [[Vajrayāna]] [[form]] of [[Buddhism]] were being practiced in [[Sri Lanka]], and two [[Indian]] [[monks]] responsible for {{Wiki|propagating}} [[Esoteric Buddhism]] in [[China]], [[Vajrabodhi]] and [[Amoghavajra]], visited the [[island]] during this [[time]]. [[Abhayagiri Vihāra]] appears to have been a center for [[Theravadin]] [[Mahāyāna]] and [[Vajrayāna]] teachings. | ||
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+ | =====[[Abolition of other Theravāda traditions]]===== | ||
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+ | Some [[scholars]] have held that the rulers of [[Sri Lanka]] ensured that [[Theravāda]] remained [[traditional]], and that this [[characteristic]] contrasts with [[Indian Buddhism]]. However, before the 12th century CE, more rulers of [[Sri Lanka]] gave support and {{Wiki|patronage}} to the [[Abhayagiri]] [[Theravādins]], and travelers such as [[Faxian]] saw the [[Abhayagiri]] [[Theravādins]] as the main [[Buddhist tradition]] in [[Sri Lanka]]. | ||
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+ | The trend of [[Abhayagiri Vihara]] being the dominant [[Theravāda]] [[sect]] changed in the 12th century CE, when the [[Mahāvihāra]] gained the {{Wiki|political}} support of [[King]] [[Parakkamabāhu]] I (1153-1186 CE), and completely abolished the [[Abhayagiri]] and [[Jetavana]] [[Theravāda traditions]]. The [[Theravāda]] [[monks]] of these two [[traditions]] were then defrocked and given the choice of either returning to the laity permanently, or attempting re-ordination under the [[Mahāvihāra tradition]] as "novices" ([[sāmaṇera]]). | ||
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+ | Regarding the differences between these three [[Theravāda traditions]], the Cūḷavaṁsa laments, "Despite the vast efforts made in every way by former [[kings]] down to the {{Wiki|present}} day, the [[Bhikkhus]] turned away in their demeanor from one another and took [[delight]] in all kinds of strife." | ||
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− | ===== | + | ====[[Lineage of nuns]]==== |
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− | + | A few years after the arrival of [[Sthavira]] [[Mahinda]], [[Bhikkhuni]] [[Sanghamitta]], who is also believed to be the daughter of [[Emperor]] [[Asoka]], came to [[Sri Lanka]]. She started the first [[nun's]] order in [[Sri Lanka]], but this order of [[nuns]] [[died]] out in [[Sri Lanka]] in the 11th century and in [[Burma]] in the 13th. In 429 CE, by request of [[China's]] [[emperor]], [[nuns]] from [[Anuradhapura]] were sent to [[China]] to establish the [[Nun's]] [[Order]]. | |
− | In | + | The order was then spread to [[Korea]]. In 1996, 11 selected [[Sri Lankan]] [[nuns]] were [[ordained]] fully as [[Bhikkhunis]] by a team of [[Theravāda]] [[monks]] in concert with a team of [[Korean]] [[Nuns]] in [[India]]. |
− | + | There is disagreement among [[Theravada]] [[vinaya]] authorities as to whether such ordinations are valid. In the last few years the head of the [[Dambulla]] [[chapter]] of the [[Siyam Nikaya]] in [[Sri Lanka]] has carried out [[ordination]] {{Wiki|ceremonies}} for hundreds of [[nuns]]. | |
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− | + | This has been criticized by other leading figures in the [[Siyam Nikaya]] and [[Amarapura Nikaya]], and the governing council of [[Burmese]] [[Buddhism]] has declared that there can be no valid [[ordination]] of [[nuns]] in {{Wiki|modern}} times, though some [[Burmese]] [[monks]] disagree with this. | |
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− | ==== | + | ==={{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}=== |
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[[Image:Bagan, Burma.jpg|thumb|280px|Ruins of Bagan, an ancient capital of Burma. There are more than 2,000 Buddhist temples. During the height of Bagan's power there were some 13,000 temples.]] | [[Image:Bagan, Burma.jpg|thumb|280px|Ruins of Bagan, an ancient capital of Burma. There are more than 2,000 Buddhist temples. During the height of Bagan's power there were some 13,000 temples.]] | ||
− | According to Mahavamsa the Sri Lanka chronicle, after the conclusion of the Third Buddhist Council, a missionary was also sent to Suvannabhumi where two monks Sona and Uttara, are said to have proceeded. Scholar opinions differ as to where exactly this land of Suvannabhumi is located, but Suvannabhumi is believed to be located somewhere in the area which now includes lower Burma, Thailand, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra Island. | + | According to [[Mahavamsa]] the [[Sri Lanka]] chronicle, after the conclusion of the [[Third Buddhist Council]], a {{Wiki|missionary}} was also sent to [[Suvannabhumi]] where two [[monks]] [[Sona]] and [[Uttara]], are said to have proceeded. [[Scholar]] opinions differ as to where exactly this land of [[Suvannabhumi]] is located, but [[Suvannabhumi]] is believed to be located somewhere in the area which now includes lower [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], {{Wiki|Malay}} Peninsula and [[Sumatra]] [[Island]]. |
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+ | Before the 12th century, the areas of [[Thailand]], [[Burma]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]] were dominated by various [[Buddhist]] sects from [[India]], and included the teachings of [[Mahāyāna Buddhism]]. In the 7th century, [[Yijing]] noted in his travels that in these areas, all major sects of [[Indian Buddhism]] flourished. | ||
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+ | ====[[Burma]]==== | ||
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+ | Though there are some early accounts that have been interpreted as [[Theravāda]] in [[Burma]], the surviving records show that most [[Burmese]] [[Buddhism]] incorporated [[Mahāyāna]], and used [[Sanskrit]] rather than [[Pali]]. After the {{Wiki|decline}} of [[Buddhism]] in [[India]], missions of [[monks]] from [[Sri Lanka]] gradually converted [[Burmese]] [[Buddhism]] to [[Theravāda]], and in the next two centuries also brought [[Theravāda Buddhism]] to the areas of [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]], where it supplanted previous [[forms]] of [[Buddhism]]. | ||
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+ | The Mon and Pyu were among the earliest [[people]] to inhabit [[Burma]]. Recent {{Wiki|archaeological}} research at a Pyu settlement in the Samon Valley (around 100 km south-east of [[Bagan]]) has shown that they had trade links with [[India]] from 500-400 BC and with [[China]] around 200 BC. | ||
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+ | {{Wiki|Chinese}} sources which have been dated to around 240 A.D. mention a [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|kingdom}} by the [[name]] of [[Lin-Yang]], which some [[scholars]] have identified as the {{Wiki|ancient}} [[Pyu]] {{Wiki|kingdom}} of [[Beikthano]] 300 km [[north]] of {{Wiki|Yangon}}. | ||
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+ | The oldest surviving [[Buddhist texts]] in the [[Pali]] [[language]] come from [[Pyu]] city of [[Sri Ksetra]], the text which is dated from the mid 5th A.D. to mid 6th A.D. is written on twenty-leaf {{Wiki|manuscript}} of solid {{Wiki|gold}}. The [[Burmese]] slowly became [[Theravadan]] when they came into [[contact]] with the Pyu and Mon {{Wiki|civilization}}. The Thais also slowly became [[Theravadan]] as they came into [[contact]] with the Mon {{Wiki|civilization}}. | ||
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+ | ====[[China]]==== | ||
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− | + | Despite its [[success]] in {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}, [[Theravada Buddhism]] in [[China]] has generally been limited to areas bordering [[Theravada]] countries. | |
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− | + | ===[[Modernisation and spread to the west]]=== | |
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[[Image:Yattawmu Paya.JPG|thumb|Laykyun Setkyar in the village of Khatakan Taung, near Monywa in Burma.The second tallest statue in the world.]] | [[Image:Yattawmu Paya.JPG|thumb|Laykyun Setkyar in the village of Khatakan Taung, near Monywa in Burma.The second tallest statue in the world.]] | ||
''See also: [[Buddhist modernism]] and [[Vipassana movement]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Buddhist modernism]] and [[Vipassana movement]]<br/> | ||
− | In the 19th century began a process of mutual influence of both Asian Theravadins and a western audience interested in ancient wisdom. Especially Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, founders of the Theosophical Society had a profound role in this process. In Theravada countries developed a lay vipassana practice. From the 1970s on western interest gave way to the growth of the so-called Vipassana movement in the west | + | In the 19th century began a process of mutual influence of both {{Wiki|Asian}} [[Theravadins]] and a {{Wiki|western}} audience [[interested]] in {{Wiki|ancient}} [[wisdom]]. Especially {{Wiki|Helena Blavatsky}} and {{Wiki|Henry Steel Olcott}}, founders of the [[Theosophical Society]] had a profound role in this process. In [[Theravada]] countries developed a lay [[vipassana]] practice. From the 1970s on {{Wiki|western}} [[interest]] gave way to the growth of the so-called [[Vipassana]] {{Wiki|movement}} in the [[west]] |
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+ | ====[[Reaction against western colonialism]]==== | ||
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+ | [[Buddhist]] revivalism has also reacted against changes in [[Buddhism]] [[caused]] by colonialist regimes. {{Wiki|Western}} colonialists and {{Wiki|Christian missionaries}} deliberately imposed a particular type of {{Wiki|Christian}} [[monasticism]] on [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|clergy}} in [[Sri Lanka]] and colonies in {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}, restricting [[monks]]' [[activities]] to {{Wiki|individual}} [[purification]] and [[temple]] ministries. | ||
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+ | Prior to {{Wiki|British}} colonial control, [[monks]] in both [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Burma]] had been responsible for the [[education]] of the children of [[lay people]], and had produced large [[bodies]] of {{Wiki|literature}}. After the {{Wiki|British}} takeover, [[Buddhist]] [[temples]] were strictly administered and were only permitted to use their funds on strictly [[religious]] [[activities]]. {{Wiki|Christian}} ministers were given control of the [[education]] system and their pay became [[state]] funding for missions. | ||
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− | Foreign, especially British, rule had an enervating effect on the sangha. According to Walpola Rahula, Christian missionaries displaced and appropriated the educational, social, and welfare activities of the monks, and inculcated a permanent shift in views regarding the proper position of monks in society through their institutional influence upon the elite | + | Foreign, especially {{Wiki|British}}, {{Wiki|rule}} had an enervating effect on the [[sangha]]. According to [[Walpola Rahula]], {{Wiki|Christian missionaries}} displaced and appropriated the educational, {{Wiki|social}}, and {{Wiki|welfare}} [[activities]] of the [[monks]], and inculcated a [[permanent]] shift in [[views]] regarding the proper position of [[monks]] in {{Wiki|society}} through their institutional influence upon the {{Wiki|elite}}. |
− | One of the results of the reactions against western colonialism was the modernisation of Theravada Buddhism, incorporating western elements, and opening meditation practice for a lay audience. It are those modernized forms of Theravada practice which have been spread to the west. | + | Many [[monks]] in post-colonial times have been dedicated to undoing this {{Wiki|paradigm}} shift. Movements intending to restore [[Buddhism's]] place in {{Wiki|society}} have developed in both [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Burma]]. |
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+ | One of the results of the reactions against {{Wiki|western}} colonialism was the modernisation of [[Theravada Buddhism]], incorporating {{Wiki|western}} [[elements]], and opening [[meditation]] practice for a lay audience. It are those modernized [[forms]] of [[Theravada]] practice which have been spread to the [[west]]. | ||
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+ | ====[[Sri Lanka]]==== | ||
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''See also: [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka]]<br/> | ||
− | At Sri Lanka Theravadins were looking at western culture to find means to revitalize their own tradition. Christian missionaries were threatening the indigenous culture | + | At [[Sri Lanka]] [[Theravadins]] were looking at {{Wiki|western culture}} to find means to revitalize their [[own]] [[tradition]]. {{Wiki|Christian missionaries}} were threatening the indigenous {{Wiki|culture}}. |
− | + | As a {{Wiki|reaction}}, [[Theravadins]] started to propagate [[Theravada Buddhism]]. They were aided by {{Wiki|Theosophists}}, who were looking for {{Wiki|ancient}} [[wisdom]], and expected this to be found, among other possible sources, within [[Buddhism]] and the [[Pali canon]]. | |
− | ====Thailand==== | + | [[Anagarika Dharmapala]] was one of the Tharavada leaders with whom the {{Wiki|Theosophists}} sided. [[Dharmapala]] tried to reinstate [[vipassana]], taking the [[visudhimagga]] and the [[Pali canon]] to find out a workable method. [[Dharmapala]] reached out to the middle classes, [[offering]] them [[religious]] practice and a [[religious]] [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]], which were used to withstand the {{Wiki|British}} imperialists. |
− | [[Image:Phra Buddha Maha Nawamin Sakayamuni Sri Wisetchaichan.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Buddha of Thailand]] in the Wat Muang Monastery in Ang Thong province. The tallest statue in Thailand, and the ninth tallest in the world.]] | + | |
+ | A {{Wiki|practical}} consequence was a change in the [[religious]] configuration of the [[island]], with lay practitioners practicing [[meditation]], which before was reserved for [[monks]]. | ||
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+ | The translation and publication of the [[Pali canon]] by the {{Wiki|Pali Text Society}}, which for the first [[time]] in history made the [[pali canon]] available to a lay audience, not only in the [[west]], but also in the [[east]]. {{Wiki|Western}} lay [[interest]] in [[Theravada Buddhism]] was promoted by the [[Theosophical Society]], and endured until the beginning of the 20th century. During the 1970s [[interest]] rose again, leading to a surge of westerners searching for [[enlightenment]], and the republishing of the [[Pali canon]], first in print, and later also at the web. | ||
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+ | ====[[Thailand]]==== | ||
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+ | [[Image:Phra Buddha Maha Nawamin Sakayamuni Sri Wisetchaichan.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Buddha of Thailand]] in the Wat Muang [[Monastery]] in Ang [[Thong]] province. The tallest statue in [[Thailand]], and the ninth tallest in the [[world]].]] | ||
''See also: [[Buddhism in Thailand]]and [[Thai Forest Tradition]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Buddhism in Thailand]]and [[Thai Forest Tradition]]<br/> | ||
− | With the coming to power in 1851 of King Mongkut, who had been a monk himself for twenty-seven years, the sangha, like the kingdom, became steadily more centralized and hierarchical, and its links to the state more institutionalized. Mongkut was a distinguished scholar of Pali Buddhist scripture. Moreover, at that time the immigration of numbers of monks from Burma was introducing the more rigorous discipline characteristic of the Mon sangha. Influenced by the Mon and guided by his own understanding of the Tipitaka, Mongkut began a reform movement that later became the basis for the Dhammayuttika order of monks. | + | With the coming to power in 1851 of [[King]] {{Wiki|Mongkut}}, who had been a [[monk]] himself for twenty-seven years, the [[sangha]], like the {{Wiki|kingdom}}, became steadily more centralized and hierarchical, and its links to the [[state]] more institutionalized. {{Wiki|Mongkut}} was a {{Wiki|distinguished}} [[scholar]] of [[Pali]] [[Buddhist scripture]]. Moreover, at that [[time]] the immigration of numbers of [[monks]] from [[Burma]] was introducing the more rigorous [[discipline]] [[characteristic]] of the Mon [[sangha]]. Influenced by the Mon and guided by his [[own]] [[understanding]] of the [[Tipitaka]], {{Wiki|Mongkut}} began a reform {{Wiki|movement}} that later became the basis for the [[Dhammayuttika order]] of [[monks]]. |
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+ | In the early 1900s, [[Thailand's]] [[Ajahn Sao Kantasilo Mahathera]] and his [[student]], [[Mun Bhuridatta]] led the [[Thai Forest Tradition]] revival {{Wiki|movement}}. In the 20th century notable practitioners included [[Ajahn Thate]], [[Ajahn Maha Bua]] and [[Ajahn Chah]]. It was later spread globally by [[Ajahn Mun's]] students including [[Ajahn Thate]], [[Ajahn Maha Bua]] and [[Ajahn Chah]] and several {{Wiki|western}} [[disciples]], among whom the most senior is [[Luang Por]] [[Ajahn Sumedho]]. | ||
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+ | ====[[Burma]]==== | ||
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''See also: [[Buddhism in Burma]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Buddhism in Burma]]<br/> | ||
− | Birmese Theravada Buddhism has had a profound influence on modern vipassana practice, both for lay practitioners in Asia as lay practitioners in the west. | + | Birmese [[Theravada Buddhism]] has had a profound influence on {{Wiki|modern}} [[vipassana]] practice, both for lay practitioners in {{Wiki|Asia}} as lay practitioners in the [[west]]. |
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+ | The so-called "New [[Burmese]] method" was developed by [[U Nārada]] and popularized by his students [[Mahasi Sayadaw]] and [[Nyanaponika Thera]]. Another prominent [[teacher]] is [[Bikkhu]] [[Bodhi]], a [[student]] of [[Nyanaponika]]. | ||
− | + | The New [[Burmese]] Method strongly emphasizes [[vipassana]] over [[samatha]]. It is regarded as a simplification of [[traditional]] [[Buddhist meditation]] techniques, suitable not only for [[monks]] but also for lay-practitioners. The method has been popularized in the [[west]] by [[teachers]] as {{Wiki|Joseph Goldstein}}, {{Wiki|Jack Kornfield}}, {{Wiki|Tara Brach}}, Gil Fronsdal and {{Wiki|Sharon Salzberg}}. | |
− | The Ledi lineage begins with Ledi Sayadaw. S.N. Goenka is a well-known teacher in the Ledi-lineage. According to S. N. Goenka, vipassana-techniques are essentially non-sectarian in character, and have universal application. One need not convert to Buddhism to practice these styles of meditation | + | The Ledi [[lineage]] begins with [[Ledi Sayadaw]]. S.N. Goenka is a well-known [[teacher]] in the Ledi-lineage. According to [[S. N. Goenka]], [[vipassana]]-techniques are [[essentially]] [[non-sectarian]] in [[character]], and have [[universal]] application. One need not convert to [[Buddhism]] to practice these styles of [[meditation]]. |
− | + | [[Meditation centers]] [[teaching]] the [[vipassanā]] popularized by [[S. N. Goenka]] [[exist]] now in [[India]], {{Wiki|Asia}}, [[North]] and [[South]] {{Wiki|America}}, {{Wiki|Europe}}, [[Australia]], {{Wiki|Middle East}} and {{Wiki|Africa}}. | |
− | |||
− | *Modernism: attempts to adapt to the modern world and adopt some of its ideas; including, among other things | + | |
− | **Green movement | + | ====[[Modern developments]]==== |
− | **Syncretism with other Buddhist traditions | + | |
− | **Universal inclusivity | + | |
− | *Reformism: attempts to restore a supposed earlier, ideal state of Buddhism; includes in particular the adoption of Western scholars' theories of original Buddhism (in recent times the "Western scholarly interpretation of Buddhism" is the official Buddhism prevailing in Sri Lanka and Thailand. | + | The following {{Wiki|modern}} trends or movements have been identified. |
− | *Ultimatism: tendency to concentrate on advanced teachings such as the Four Noble Truths at the expense of more elementary ones | + | |
+ | *{{Wiki|Modernism}}: attempts to adapt to the {{Wiki|modern}} [[world]] and adopt some of its [[ideas]]; including, among other things | ||
+ | **Green {{Wiki|movement}} | ||
+ | **[[Syncretism]] with other [[Buddhist traditions]] | ||
+ | **[[Universal]] inclusivity | ||
+ | *Reformism: attempts to restore a supposed earlier, {{Wiki|ideal}} [[state]] of [[Buddhism]]; includes in particular the adoption of {{Wiki|Western}} [[scholars]]' theories of original [[Buddhism]] (in recent times the "{{Wiki|Western}} [[scholarly]] interpretation of [[Buddhism]]" is the official [[Buddhism]] prevailing in [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Thailand]].) | ||
+ | *Ultimatism: tendency to [[concentrate]] on advanced teachings such as the [[Four Noble Truths]] at the expense of more elementary ones | ||
*Neotraditionalism; includes among other things | *Neotraditionalism; includes among other things | ||
**Revival of ritualism | **Revival of ritualism | ||
**Remythologization | **Remythologization | ||
− | *Insight meditation | + | *[[Insight]] [[meditation]] |
− | *Social action | + | *{{Wiki|Social}} [[action]] |
*Devotional religiosity | *Devotional religiosity | ||
− | *Reaction to Buddhist nationalism | + | *{{Wiki|Reaction}} to [[Buddhist]] [[nationalism]] |
− | *Renewal of forest monks | + | *Renewal of {{Wiki|forest}} [[monks]] |
− | *Revival of samatha meditation | + | *Revival of [[samatha]] [[meditation]] |
− | *Revival of the Theravada bhikkhuni lineage (not recognized in Thailand) | + | *Revival of the [[Theravada]] [[bhikkhuni]] [[lineage]] (not [[recognized]] in [[Thailand]]) |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===[[Doctrinal differences with other schools]]=== | ||
+ | |||
− | |||
''See also: [[Early Buddhism]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]], [[Early Buddhist schools]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Early Buddhism]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism]], [[Early Buddhist schools]]<br/> | ||
− | The Sthaviravada, from which Theravada is derived, differed from other early Buddhist schools on a variety of teachings, | + | The [[Sthaviravada]], from which [[Theravada]] is derived, differed from other [[early Buddhist schools]] on a variety of teachings, which are maintained by the [[Theravada school]]. The differences resulted from the systematizion of the [[Buddhist teachings]], which was preserved in the [[Abdhidhammas]] of the various schools. |
+ | |||
+ | The [[Abhidhamma]] is "a restatement of the [[doctrine]] of the [[Buddha]] in strictly formalized [[language]] [...] assumed to constitute a consistent system of [[philosophy]]". It's aim is not the [[empirical]] verification of the [[Buddhist teachings]], but "to set forth the correct interpretation of the [[Buddha's]] statements in the [[Sutra]] to restate his 'system' with {{Wiki|perfect}} accuracy". | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===The [[Arahant is perfect]]=== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Mahāsāṃghika]] believed that [[Arahants]] could regress, while the [[Theravada]] believes that the [[Arahant]] has an "{{Wiki|incorruptible}} [[nature]]" | ||
+ | |||
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− | === | + | ===[[Insight is sudden and perfect]]=== |
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− | + | According to the [[Sthaviravada]]/[[Theravada]], "progress in [[understanding]] comes all at once, '[[insight]]' ([[abhisamaya]]) does not come 'gradually' ([[successively]] - [[anapurva]])". This is reflected in the [[Theravada]]-account on the four levels of [[attainment]], in which the [[attainment]] of the four [[paths]] appears suddenly, and the [[defilements]] are rooted out at once. The same stance is taken in the contemporary [[Vipassana]] {{Wiki|movement}}, especially the so-called "[[New Burmese Method]]". | |
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− | |||
+ | ===[[Dharmas]]=== | ||
− | |||
− | |||
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− | + | The commentaries gave a new [[definition]] of "a '[[principle]]' or '[[element]]' ([[dharma]])": | |
− | The | + | <blockquote>[[Dharmas]] are what have (or 'hold', 'maintain', dhr is the nearest {{Wiki|equivalent}} in the [[language]] to the English 'have') their [[own]] [[own-being]] ([[svabhava]]). It is added that they naturally (yathasvabhavatas) have this through [[conditions]] ([[pratyaya]]). The [[idea]] is that they are {{Wiki|distinct}}, definable, {{Wiki|principles}} in the constitution of the [[universe]]."</blockquote> |
− | |||
− | ====The Three Characteristics==== | + | |
− | [[Image:Flickr - don macauley - Wat Chaiwatthanaram.jpg|thumb|250px| [[Wat Chaiwatthanaram]] temple in the old city of Ayutthaya in Thailand.]] | + | ===[[Teachings]]=== |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Image:Sermon in the Deer Park depicted at Wat Chedi Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg|thumb|150px|Painting of Buddha's first sermon depicted at [[Wat Chedi Liem]] in [[Thailand]]]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Theravada]] promotes the {{Wiki|concept}} of [[Vibhajjavada]] ([[Pali]]), literally "[[Teaching of Analysis]]." This [[doctrine]] says that [[insight]] must come from the aspirant's [[experience]], critical [[investigation]], and {{Wiki|reasoning}} instead of by [[blind faith]]. However, the [[scriptures]] of the [[Theravadin]] [[tradition]] also {{Wiki|emphasize}} heeding the advice of the [[wise]], considering such advice and {{Wiki|evaluation}} of one's [[own]] [[experiences]] to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Theravada]] {{Wiki|orthodoxy}} takes the seven stages of [[purification]] as its basic outline of the [[path]] to be followed. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Theravada]] [[Path]] starts with {{Wiki|learning}}, to be followed by practice, culminating in the [[realization]] of [[Nirvana]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ==={{Wiki|Learning}}=== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ====[[The Three Characteristics]]==== | ||
+ | [[Image:Flickr - don macauley - Wat Chaiwatthanaram.jpg|thumb|250px| [[Wat Chaiwatthanaram]] [[temple]] in the old city of [[Ayutthaya]] in [[Thailand]].]] | ||
''See also: [[Three marks of existence]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Three marks of existence]]<br/> | ||
− | Throughout the Pail-canon two characteristics of all conditioned phenomena and one characteristic of all dhammas are being mentioned. The Theravada tradition has grouped them together. Insight into these three characteristics is the entry to the Buddhist path: | + | Throughout the Pail-canon two {{Wiki|characteristics}} of all [[conditioned]] [[phenomena]] and one [[characteristic]] of all [[dhammas]] are being mentioned. The [[Theravada tradition]] has grouped them together. [[Insight]] into these three {{Wiki|characteristics}} is the entry to the [[Buddhist path]]: |
+ | |||
+ | #[[Anicca]] ([[impermanence]]): All [[conditioned]] [[phenomena]] are [[subject]] to change, including [[physical]] {{Wiki|characteristics}}, qualities, {{Wiki|assumptions}}, theories, [[knowledge]], etc. [[Nothing]] is [[permanent]], because, for something to be [[permanent]], there has to be an [[unchanging]] [[cause]] behind it. Since all [[causes]] are recursively [[bound]] together, there can be no [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] [[unchanging]] [[cause]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | #[[Dukkha]] ([[suffering]]): [[Craving]] [[causes]] [[suffering]], since what is craved is transitory, changing, and perishing. The [[craving]] for [[impermanent]] things [[causes]] disappointment and [[sorrow]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | There is a tendency to label practically everything in the [[world]], as either "good," "comfortable" or "satisfying;" or "bad", "uncomfortable," and "unsatisfying." Labeling things in terms of like and dislike creates [[suffering]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | If one succeeds in giving up the tendency to label things and free himself from the {{Wiki|instincts}} that drive him towards [[attaining]] what he himself labels collectively as "liking," he attains the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] freedom. The problem, the [[cause]], the {{Wiki|solution}} and the implementation, all of these are within oneself, not outside. | ||
+ | |||
+ | #[[Anatta]] ({{Wiki|not-self}}): all [[dhammas]] lack a fixed, [[unchanging]] '[[essence]]'; there is no [[permanent]], [[essential]] [[Self]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | A [[living being]] is a composite of the [[five aggregates]] ([[khandhas]]), which is the [[physical]] [[forms]] ([[rupa]]), [[feelings]] or [[sensations]] ([[vedana]]), [[perception]] ([[sanna]]), [[mental formations]] ([[sankhara]]), and [[consciousness]] ([[vinnana]]), none of which can be identified as one's [[Self]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | From the [[moment]] of {{Wiki|conception}}, all entities (including all [[living beings]]) are [[subject]] to a process of continuous change. A [[practitioner]] should, on the other hand, develop and refine his or her [[mind]] to a [[state]] so as to see through this [[phenomenon]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Truly [[understanding]] this counter-intuitive {{Wiki|concept}} of [[Buddhism]] requires direct and personal [[experience]]. This is given in [[vipassana]]-practice.closely watching the continuous changes in the [[Five Aggregates]], | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ====[[Dukkha - The Four Noble Truths]]==== | ||
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− | |||
− | |||
− | |||
''See also: [[Four Noble Truths]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Four Noble Truths]]<br/> | ||
− | The Four Noble Truths are described as follows: | + | The [[Four Noble Truths]] are described as follows: |
+ | |||
+ | #[[Dukkha]] ([[suffering]]): This can be somewhat broadly classified into [[three categories]]. [[Inherent]] [[suffering]], or the [[suffering]] one undergoes in all the [[worldly]] [[activities]], what one [[suffers]] in day-to-day [[life]]: [[birth]], [[aging]], {{Wiki|diseases}}, [[death]], [[sadness]], etc. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In short, all that one [[feels]] from separating from "[[loving]]" [[attachments]] and/or associating with "hating" [[attachments]] is encompassed into the term. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The second class of [[suffering]], called [[Suffering]] due to Change, implies that things [[suffer]] due to attaching themselves to a momentary [[state]] which is held to be "good"; when that [[state]] is changed, things are subjected to [[suffering]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The third, termed [[Sankhara]] [[Dukkha]], is the most {{Wiki|subtle}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Beings]] [[suffer]] simply by not [[realizing]] that they are mere [[aggregates]] with no definite, [[unchanging]] [[Wikipedia:Identity (social science)|identity]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | #[[Dukkha Samudaya]] ([[cause of suffering]]): [[Craving]], which leads to [[Attachment]] and Bondage, is the [[cause of suffering]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Formally, this is termed [[Tanha]]. It can be classified into three instinctive drives. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Kama Tanha]] is the [[Craving]] for any [[pleasurable]] [[sense object]] (which involves [[sight]], [[sound]], {{Wiki|touch}}, {{Wiki|taste}}, {{Wiki|smell}} and [[mental]] perceptives). | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Bhava Tanha]] is the [[Craving]] for [[attachment]] to an ongoing process, which appears in various [[forms]], including the longing for [[existence]]. [[Vibhava Tanha]] is the [[Craving]] for [[detachment]] from a process, which includes [[non-existence]] and [[causes]] the longing [[for self-annihilation]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | #[[Dukkha Nirodha]] ([[cessation of suffering]]): One cannot possibly adjust the whole [[world]] to one's {{Wiki|taste}} in order to eliminate [[suffering]] and {{Wiki|hope}} that it will remain so forever. | ||
+ | |||
+ | This would violate the chief [[principle]] of Change. Instead, one adjusts one's [[own]] [[mind]] through [[detachment]] so that the Change, of whatever [[nature]], has no effect on one's [[peace]] of [[mind]]. Briefly stated, the [[third Noble Truth]] implies that elimination of the [[cause]] ([[craving]]) eliminates the result ([[suffering]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | This is inferred in the [[scriptural]] quote by The [[Buddha]], 'Whatever may result from a [[cause]], shall be eliminated by the elimination of the [[cause]]'. | ||
+ | #[[Dukkha Nirodha]] [[Gamini Patipada]] (pathway to freedom from [[suffering]]): | ||
+ | |||
+ | This is the [[Noble]] Eightfold Pathway towards freedom or [[Nirvana]]. The [[path]] can roughly be rendered into English as [[right view]], [[right intention]], [[right speech]], [[right actions]], [[right livelihood]], [[right effort]], [[right mindfulness]] and [[right concentration]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ====[[Defilements]]==== | ||
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''See also: [[Kleshas]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Kleshas]]<br/> | ||
− | In Theravada, the cause of human existence and suffering (dukkha) is identified as craving (tanha), which carries with it the defilements (kilesas). Those defilements that bind humans to the cycle of rebirth are classified into a set of ten "Fetters," while those defilements that impede concentration (samadhi) are presented in a fivefold set called the "Five Hindrances." | + | In [[Theravada]], the [[cause]] of [[human existence]] and [[suffering]] ([[dukkha]]) is identified as [[craving]] ([[tanha]]), which carries with it the [[defilements]] ([[kilesas]]). Those [[defilements]] that bind [[humans]] to the cycle of [[rebirth]] are classified into a set of ten "[[Fetters]]," while those [[defilements]] that impede [[concentration]] ([[samadhi]]) are presented in a fivefold set called the "[[Five Hindrances]]." |
− | + | The level of [[defilement]] can be coarse, {{Wiki|medium}}, and {{Wiki|subtle}}. It is a [[phenomenon]] that frequently arises, remains temporarily and then vanishes. [[Theravadins]] believe [[defilements]] are not only harmful to oneself, but also harmful to others. They are the driving force behind all inhumanities a [[human being]] can commit. | |
− | ====Ignorance==== | + | There are three stages of [[defilements]]. During the stage of passivity the [[defilements]] lie dormant at the base of the [[mental]] {{Wiki|continuum}} as [[latent tendencies]] ([[anusaya]]), but through the impact of sensory {{Wiki|stimulus}}, they will [[manifest]] ([[pariyutthana]]) themselves at the surface of [[consciousness]] in the [[form]] of [[unwholesome]] [[thoughts]], [[emotions]], and [[Wikipedia:Volition (psychology)|volitions]]. |
+ | |||
+ | If they [[gather]] additional strength, the [[defilements]] will reach the [[dangerous]] stage of {{Wiki|transgression}} (vitikkama), which will then involve [[physical]] or {{Wiki|vocal}} [[actions]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ====[[Ignorance]]==== | ||
''See also: [[Avijja]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Avijja]]<br/> | ||
− | Theravadins believe these defilements are habits born out of ignorance that afflict the minds of all unenlightened beings, who cling to them and their influence in their ignorance of the truth. But in reality, those mental defilements are nothing more than taints that have afflicted the mind, creating suffering and stress. Unenlightened beings cling to the body, under the assumption that it represents a Self, whereas in reality the body is an impermanent phenomenon formed from the four basic elements. Often characterized by earth, water, fire and air, in the early Buddhist texts these are defined to be abstractions representing the sensorial qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility, respectively. | + | [[Theravadins]] believe these [[defilements]] are [[habits]] born out of [[ignorance]] that afflict the [[minds]] of all [[unenlightened beings]], who [[cling]] to them and their influence in their [[ignorance]] of the [[truth]]. But in [[reality]], those [[mental]] [[defilements]] are [[nothing]] more than [[taints]] that have afflicted the [[mind]], creating [[suffering]] and [[stress]]. |
+ | |||
+ | [[Unenlightened beings]] [[cling]] to the [[body]], under the assumption that it represents a [[Self]], whereas in [[reality]] the [[body]] is an [[impermanent]] [[phenomenon]] formed from the four basic [[elements]]. Often characterized by [[earth]], [[water]], [[fire]] and [[air]], in the early [[Buddhist texts]] these are defined to be {{Wiki|abstractions}} representing the [[sensorial]] qualities {{Wiki|solidity}}, {{Wiki|fluidity}}, temperature, and mobility, respectively. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[mental]] [[defilements]]' frequent instigation and manipulation of the [[mind]] is believed to have prevented the [[mind]] from [[seeing]] the [[true nature]] of [[reality]]. [[Unskillful]] {{Wiki|behavior}} in turn can strengthen the [[defilements]], but following the [[Noble Eightfold Path]] can weaken or eradicate them. [[Avijja]] is destroyed by [[insight]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ====[[Cause and Effect]]==== | ||
− | |||
− | |||
''See also: [[Pratītyasamutpāda]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Pratītyasamutpāda]]<br/> | ||
− | The Concept of Cause and Effect, or Causality, is a key concept in Theravada, and indeed, in Buddhism as a whole. This concept is expressed in several ways, including the Four Noble Truths, and most importantly, the Paticca-Samuppāda (dependent co-arising). | + | The {{Wiki|Concept}} of [[Cause and Effect]], or [[Causality]], is a key {{Wiki|concept}} in [[Theravada]], and indeed, in [[Buddhism]] as a whole. This {{Wiki|concept}} is expressed in several ways, including the [[Four Noble Truths]], and most importantly, the [[Paticca-Samuppāda]] ([[dependent co-arising]]). |
+ | |||
+ | [[Abhidhamma]] in [[Theravada]] [[canon]] differentiate between a [[root cause]] ([[Hetu]]) and facilitating [[cause]] (pacca). By the combined interaction of both these, an effect is brought about. On top of this [[view]], a [[logic]] is built and elaborated whose most supple [[form]] can be seen in the [[Paticca]] Samuppāda. | ||
+ | |||
+ | This {{Wiki|concept}} is then used to question the [[nature]] of [[suffering]] and to elucidate the way out of it, as expressed in the [[Four Noble Truths]]. It is also employed in several [[suttas]] to refute several [[philosophies]] including {{Wiki|creationism}}. | ||
− | + | By taking away a [[cause]], the result will also disappear. From this follows the [[Buddhist path]] to end [[suffering]] and [[existence]] in [[samsara]]. | |
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− | + | ===[[Practice]]=== | |
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− | Theravadins believe that every individual is personally responsible for their own self-awakening and liberation, as they are the ones that were responsible for their own actions and consequences (Sanskrit: karma; Pali: kamma). Simply learning or believing in the true nature of reality as expounded by the Buddha is not enough, the awakening can only be achieved through direct experience and personal realization. Yet there is a widespread believe in Theravada that we're living in a degenerated epoch, in which true liberation is no longer possible. | + | [[Theravada]] {{Wiki|orthodoxy}} takes the seven stages of [[purification]] as the basic outline of the [[path]] to be followed. This basic outline is based on the threefold [[discipline]] of [[Sīla]] ([[ethics]] or [[discipline]]), [[Samādhi]] ([[meditative concentration]]), [[Pañña]] ([[understanding]] or [[wisdom]]). The {{Wiki|emphasis}} is on [[understanding]] the [[three marks of existence]], which removes [[vijnana]], [[ignorance]]. [[Understanding]] destroys the Ten [[Fetters]] and leads to [[Nirvana]]. |
+ | |||
+ | [[Theravadins]] believe that every {{Wiki|individual}} is personally responsible for their [[own]] [[self-awakening]] and [[liberation]], as they are the ones that were responsible for their [[own]] [[actions]] and {{Wiki|consequences}} ([[Sanskrit]]: [[karma]]; [[Pali]]: [[kamma]]). Simply {{Wiki|learning}} or believing in the [[true nature]] of [[reality]] as expounded by the [[Buddha]] is not enough, the [[awakening]] can only be achieved through direct [[experience]] and personal [[realization]]. Yet there is a widespread believe in [[Theravada]] that we're living in a degenerated epoch, in which true [[liberation]] is no longer possible. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ====[[Noble Eightfold Path and Threefold Discipline]]==== | ||
+ | |||
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''See also: [[Noble Eightfold Path]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Noble Eightfold Path]]<br/> | ||
− | In the Sutta Pitaka the path to liberation is described by the Noble Eightfold Path: | + | In the [[Sutta Pitaka]] the [[path]] to [[liberation]] is described by the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]: |
+ | |||
+ | <blockquote>The [[Blessed One]] said, "Now what, [[monks]], is the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]? [[Right view]], [[right resolve]], [[right speech]], [[right action]], [[right livelihood]], [[right effort]], [[right mindfulness]], [[right concentration]].</blockquote> | ||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Noble Eightfold Path]] can also be summarized as the Three [[Noble]] [[Disciplines]]. These are known as [[discipline]] ([[sīla]]), [[wisdom]] ([[paññā]]), and {{Wiki|training}} of [[mind]] ([[samādhi]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ====[[Seven purification's]]==== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The [[Visuddhimagga]], written in the fifth century CE by [[Buddhaghosa]], has become the {{Wiki|orthodox}} account of the [[Theravda]] [[path]] to [[liberation]]. It gives a sequence of [[seven purifications]], based on the sequence of [[sila]], [[samadhi]] and [[prajna]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is composed of three [[sections]], which discuss: 1) [[Sīla]] ([[ethics]] or [[discipline]]); 2) [[Samādhi]] ([[meditative concentration]]); 3) [[Pañña]] ([[understanding]] or [[wisdom]]). | ||
+ | |||
+ | *The first section (part 1) explains the {{Wiki|rules}} of [[discipline]], and the method for finding a correct [[temple]] to practice, or how to meet a good [[teacher]]. | ||
+ | *The second section (part 2) describes samatha's practice, [[object]] by [[object]] (see [[Kammatthana]] for the list of the forty [[traditional]] [[objects]]). It mentions different stages of [[concentration]]. | ||
− | + | *The third section (part 3-7) is a description of the [[five skandhas]] ([[aggregates]]), [[ayatanas]], the [[Four Noble Truths]], [[dependent origination]] ([[Pratitya-samutpada]]), and the practice of [[vipassana]] through the [[development]] of [[wisdom]]. It emphasizes different [[forms]] of [[knowledge]] [[emerging]] because of the practice. This part shows a great analytical [[effort]] specific to [[Buddhist philosophy]]. | |
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− | + | The [[seven purification's]] are: | |
− | The | ||
− | + | #[[Purification]] of Conduct ([[sīla-visuddhi]]) | |
+ | #[[Purification]] of [[Mind]] ([[citta-visuddhi]]) | ||
+ | #[[Purification]] of [[View]] ([[ditthi-visuddhi]]) | ||
+ | #[[Purification]] by [[Overcoming]] [[Doubt]] ([[kankha-vitarana-visuddhi]]) | ||
+ | #[[Purification]] by [[Knowledge]] and [[Vision]] of What Is [[Path]] and Not [[Path]] ([[maggamagga-ñanadassana-visuddhi]]) | ||
+ | #[[Purification]] by [[Knowledge]] and [[Vision]] of the Course of Practice ([[patipada-ñanadassana-visuddhi]]) | ||
+ | ##[[Knowledge]] of contemplation of rise and fall ([[udayabbayanupassana-nana]]) | ||
+ | ##[[Knowledge]] of contemplation of [[dissolution]] ([[bhanganupassana-nana]]) | ||
+ | ##[[Knowledge]] of [[appearance]] as {{Wiki|terror}} ([[bhayatupatthana-nana]]) | ||
+ | ##[[Knowledge]] of contemplation of [[danger]] ([[adinavanupassana-nana]]) | ||
+ | ##[[Knowledge]] of contemplation of [[dispassion]] ([[nibbidanupassana-nana]]) | ||
+ | ##[[Knowledge]] of [[desire]] for [[deliverance]] ([[muncitukamyata-nana]]) | ||
+ | ##[[Knowledge]] of contemplation of {{Wiki|reflection}} ([[patisankhanupassana-nana]]) | ||
+ | ##[[Knowledge]] of [[equanimity]] about [[formations]] ([[sankharupekka-nana]]) | ||
+ | ##Conformity [[knowledge]] ([[anuloma-nana]]) | ||
+ | #[[Purification]] by [[Knowledge]] and [[Vision]] ([[ñanadassana-visuddhi]]) | ||
+ | ##Change of [[lineage]] | ||
+ | ##The first [[path]] and fruit | ||
+ | ##The second [[path]] and fruit | ||
+ | ##The third [[path]] and fruit | ||
+ | ##The fourth [[path]] and fruit | ||
− | + | The "[[Purification]] by [[Knowledge]] and [[Vision]]" is the culmination of the practice, in four stages leading to [[liberation]] and [[Nirvana]]. | |
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− | The | + | The {{Wiki|emphasis}} in this system is on [[understanding]] the [[three marks of existence]], [[dukkha]], [[anatta]], [[anicca]]. This {{Wiki|emphasis}} is recognizable in the value that is given to [[vipassana]] over [[samatha]], especially in the contemporary [[vipassana]] {{Wiki|movement}}. |
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− | + | ====[[Meditation]]==== | |
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[[Image:Phra Ajan Jerapunyo-Abbot of Watkungtaphao..jpg|thumb|Thai novice in meditation]] | [[Image:Phra Ajan Jerapunyo-Abbot of Watkungtaphao..jpg|thumb|Thai novice in meditation]] | ||
''See also: [[Buddhist meditation]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Buddhist meditation]]<br/> | ||
− | Theravada Buddhist meditation practices fall into two broad categories: samatha, and vipassanā. This distinction is not made in the suttas, but in the Visuddhimagga. Some common terms encountered in the Theravada practice of meditation are: | + | [[Theravada]] [[Buddhist meditation]] practices fall into two broad categories: [[samatha]], and [[vipassanā]]. This {{Wiki|distinction}} is not made in the [[suttas]], but in the [[Visuddhimagga]]. Some common terms encountered in the [[Theravada]] practice of [[meditation]] are: |
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+ | *[[Anapanasati]] | ||
+ | *[[Metta]] | ||
+ | *[[Kammaṭṭhāna]] | ||
+ | *[[Samatha]] | ||
+ | *[[Vipassana]] | ||
− | + | [[Meditation]] ([[Pali]]: [[Bhavana]]) means the positive reinforcement of one's [[mind]]. Broadly categorized into [[Samatha]] and [[Vipassana]], [[Meditation]] is the key tool implemented in [[attaining]] [[jhana]]. [[Samatha]] literally means "to make [[skillful]]," and has other renderings also, among which are "tranquilizing, [[calming]]," "[[visualizing]]," and "achieving." [[Vipassana]] means "[[insight]]" or "abstract [[understanding]]." In this context, [[Samatha]] [[Meditation]] makes a [[person]] [[skillful]] in [[concentration]] of [[mind]]. Once the [[mind]] is sufficiently [[concentrated]], [[Vipassana]] allows one to see through the [[veil]] of [[ignorance]]. | |
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− | + | In order to be free from [[suffering]] and [[stress]], [[Theravadins]] believe that the [[defilements]] need to be permanently uprooted. Initially the [[defilements]] are restrained through [[mindfulness]] to prevent them from taking over [[mental]] and [[bodily]] [[action]]. | |
− | + | They are then uprooted through internal [[investigation]], analysis, [[experience]] and [[understanding]] of their [[true nature]] by using [[jhana]]. This process needs to be repeated for each and every [[defilement]]. The practice will then lead the [[meditator]] to realize [[Nirvana]]. | |
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+ | =====[[Samatha meditation]]===== | ||
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+ | [[Image:AjahnChahSangha.jpg|thumb|250px| [[Thai Forest Tradition]] [[meditation master]], the [[Ajahn Chah|Venerable Ajahn Chah]] with his resident [[Sangha]] at [[Wat Nong Pah Pong| Wat Nong Pah Pong monastery]] in {{Wiki|Ubon Ratchathani}}, [[Thailand]] ]] | ||
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''See also: [[Samatha]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Samatha]]<br/> | ||
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− | It should be noted that samatha is not a method that is unique to Buddhism. In the suttas it is said to be implemented in other contemporary religions in India at the time of Buddha. In fact, the first teachers of Siddhartha, before they attained the state of awakening (Pāli: Bodhi), are said to have been quite skillful in samatha (although the term had not been coined yet). In the Pali Canon discourses, the Buddha frequently instructs his disciples to practice samadhi (concentration) in order to establish and develop jhana (full concentration). Jhana is the instrument used by the Buddha himself to penetrate the true nature of phenomena (through investigation and direct experience) and to reach Enlightenment. Right Concentration (samma-samadhi) is one of the elements in the Noble Eightfold Path. Samadhi can be developed from mindfulness developed with kammaṭṭhāna such as concentration on breathing (anapanasati), from visual objects (kasina), and repetition of phrases. The traditional list contains 40 objects of meditation (kammaṭṭhāna) to be used for Samatha Meditation. Every object has a specific goal; for example, meditation on the parts of the body (kayanupassana or kayagathasathi) will result in a lessening of attachment to our own bodies and those of others, resulting in a reduction of sensual desires. Mettā (loving kindness) generates the feelings of goodwill and happiness toward ourselves and other beings; metta practice serves as an antidote to ill-will, wrath and fear. | + | The [[samatha]] [[meditation]] in [[Theravada]] is usually involved with the [[Wikipedia:concept|concepts]] of [[Kammaṭṭhāna]] which literally stands for "place of work"; in this context, it is the "place" or [[object]] of [[concentration]] ([[Pāli]]: [[Ārammana]]) where the [[mind]] is at work. In [[samatha]] [[meditation]], the [[mind]] is set at work [[concentrated]] on one particular {{Wiki|entity}}. There are forty such classic [[objects]] (entities) used in [[samatha]] [[meditation]], which are termed [[Kammaṭṭhāna]]. By acquiring a [[Kammaṭṭhāna]] and practising [[samatha]] [[meditation]], one would be [[able]] to attain certain elevated states of [[awareness]] and skill of the [[mind]] called [[Jhana]]. Practising [[samatha]] has [[samadhi]] ([[concentration]]) as its [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] goal. |
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+ | It should be noted that [[samatha]] is not a method that is unique to [[Buddhism]]. In the [[suttas]] it is said to be implemented in other contemporary [[religions]] in [[India]] at the [[time]] of [[Buddha]]. In fact, the first [[teachers]] of [[Siddhartha]], before they [[attained]] the [[state]] of [[awakening]] ([[Pāli]]: [[Bodhi]]), are said to have been quite [[skillful]] in [[samatha]] (although the term had not been coined yet). | ||
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+ | In the [[Pali Canon]] [[discourses]], the [[Buddha]] frequently instructs his [[disciples]] to practice [[samadhi]] ([[concentration]]) in order to establish and develop [[jhana]] ([[full concentration]]). [[Jhana]] is the instrument used by the [[Buddha]] himself to penetrate the [[true nature]] of [[phenomena]] (through [[investigation]] and direct [[experience]]) and to reach [[Enlightenment]]. [[Right Concentration]] ([[samma-samadhi]]) is one of the [[elements]] in the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. | ||
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+ | [[Samadhi]] can be developed from [[mindfulness]] developed with [[kammaṭṭhāna]] such as [[concentration]] on [[breathing]] ([[anapanasati]]), from [[visual]] [[objects]] ([[kasina]]), and repetition of phrases. The [[traditional]] list contains 40 [[objects]] of [[meditation]] ([[kammaṭṭhāna]]) to be used for [[Samatha]] [[Meditation]]. | ||
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+ | Every [[object]] has a specific goal; for example, [[meditation]] on the parts of the [[body]] ([[kayanupassana]] or kayagathasathi) will result in a lessening of [[attachment]] to our [[own]] [[bodies]] and those of others, resulting in a reduction of [[sensual desires]]. [[Mettā]] ([[loving kindness]]) generates the [[feelings]] of [[goodwill]] and [[happiness]] toward ourselves and other [[beings]]; [[metta]] practice serves as an antidote to [[ill-will]], [[wrath]] and {{Wiki|fear}}. | ||
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+ | =====[[Vipassanā meditation]]===== | ||
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''See also: [[Vipassanā]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Vipassanā]]<br/> | ||
− | Vipassanā is the ability to see everything as is. "Vi" in pali means great or beyond, while "passanā" means to see. Vipassanā then is concerned with seeing through the veil of ignorance (Pāli: Avijjā) and so, is unique to Buddhism. It can be aided by a practised mind (with samatha) but samatha is not necessary to practice vipassanā. Chiefly, vipassanā is involved in breaking the ten Fetters that bind one to the ever-iterating cycle of birth and death i.e. samsara. Some teachers do not distinguish between the two methods, rather prescribing meditation methods that develop both concentration and insight. | + | [[Vipassanā]] is the ability to see everything as is. "Vi" in [[pali]] means great or [[beyond]], while "[[passanā]]" means to see. [[Vipassanā]] then is concerned with [[seeing]] through the [[veil]] of [[ignorance]] ([[Pāli]]: [[Avijjā]]) and so, is unique to [[Buddhism]]. It can be aided by a practised [[mind]] (with [[samatha]]) but [[samatha]] is not necessary to practice [[vipassanā]]. Chiefly, [[vipassanā]] is involved in breaking the ten [[Fetters]] that bind one to the ever-iterating cycle of [[birth]] and [[death]] i.e. [[samsara]]. Some [[teachers]] do not distinguish between the two methods, rather prescribing [[meditation]] methods that develop both [[concentration and insight]]. |
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+ | ===[[Attainment]]=== | ||
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− | ====Path and fruit==== | + | ====[[Path and fruit]]==== |
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− | + | Practice leads to [[mundane]] and [[supramundane wisdom]], leading to [[Nirvana]]: | |
− | <blockquote> | + | <blockquote>The term "[[supramundane]]" [[[lokuttara]]] applies exclusively to that which {{Wiki|transcends}} the [[world]], that is the nine [[supramundane]] states: [[Nibbana]], the [[four noble paths]] ([[magga]]) leading to [[Nibbana]], and their corresponding {{Wiki|fruits}} ([[phala]]) which [[experience]] the [[bliss]] of [[Nibbana]].</blockquote> |
− | Each path is followed by its supramundane fruit: | + | [[Mundane]] [[wisdom]] is the [[insight]] in the [[three marks of existence]]. The [[development]] of this [[insight]] leads to four [[supramundane]] [[paths]] and {{Wiki|fruits}}: |
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+ | <blockquote>Each [[path]] is a momentary peak [[experience]] directly apprehending [[Nibbana]] and permanently cutting off certain [[defilements]].</blockquote> | ||
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+ | Each [[path]] is followed by its [[supramundane]] fruit: | ||
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+ | <blockquote>whereas the [[path]] performs the active [[function]] of cutting off [[defilements]], [[fruition]] simply enjoys the [[bliss]] and [[peace]] that result when the [[path]] has completed its task. Also, where the [[path]] is limited to a [[single moment]] of [[consciousness]], the [[fruition]] that follows immediately on the [[path]] endures for two or three moments. And while each of the four [[paths]] occurs only once and can never be repeated, [[fruition]] remains accessible to the [[noble disciple]].</blockquote> | ||
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+ | ====[[Levels of attainment]]==== | ||
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''See also: [[Four stages of enlightenment]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Four stages of enlightenment]]<br/> | ||
− | Four levels of supramundane wisdom can be attained: | + | Four levels of [[supramundane]] [[wisdom]] can be [[attained]]: |
− | #Stream-Enterers: Those who have destroyed the first three fetters (false view of Self, doubt, and clinging to rites and rituals); | + | #[[Stream-Enterers]]: Those who have destroyed the first [[three fetters]] (false [[view]] of [[Self]], [[doubt]], and [[clinging to rites and rituals]]); |
− | #Once-Returners: Those who have destroyed the first three fetters and have lessened the fetters of lust and hatred; | + | #Once-Returners: Those who have destroyed the first [[three fetters]] and have lessened the [[fetters]] of [[lust]] and [[hatred]]; |
− | #Non-Returners: Those who have destroyed the five lower fetters, which bind beings to the world of the senses; | + | #[[Non-Returners]]: Those who have destroyed the five lower [[fetters]], which bind [[beings]] to the [[world]] of the [[senses]]; |
− | #Arahants: Those who have reached Enlightenment—realized Nirvana, and have reached the quality of deathlessness—are free from all the fermentations of defilement. Their ignorance, craving and attachments have ended. | + | #[[Arahants]]: Those who have reached Enlightenment—realized [[Nirvana]], and have reached the quality of deathlessness—are free from all the [[fermentations]] of [[defilement]]. Their [[ignorance]], [[craving]] and [[attachments]] have ended. |
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− | ==Scriptures== | + | ====[[Nirvana]]==== |
− | [[Image:Kyauksa.JPG|thumb|150px|right|One of the stone inscriptions of the [[World's largest book]], consisting of 729 large marble tablets with the Pali Canon inscribed on them, at [[Kuthodaw Pagoda]] in Mandalay, Burma]] | + | |
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+ | [[Nirvana]] ([[Sanskrit]]: [[निर्वाण]], [[Nirvāṇa]]; [[Pali]]: [[निब्बान]], [[Nibbāna]]; [[Thai]]: นิพพาน, Nípphaan) is the [[Wikipedia:Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate]] goal of [[Theravadins]]. It is a [[state]] where the [[fire]] of the [[passions]] has been 'blown out', and the [[person]] is {{Wiki|liberated}} from the repeated cycle of [[birth]], {{Wiki|illness}}, [[aging]] and [[death]]. | ||
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+ | According to the early [[scriptures]], the [[Nirvana]] [[attained]] by [[Arahants]] is [[identical]] to that [[attained]] by the [[Buddha]] himself, as there is only one type of [[Nirvana]]. [[Buddha]] was {{Wiki|superior}} to [[Arahants]] because the [[Buddha]] had discovered the [[path]] all by himself, and has [[taught]] it to others (i,e., {{Wiki|metaphorically}} turning the [[wheel]] of [[Dhamma]]). | ||
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+ | [[Arahants]], on the other hand, [[attained]] [[Nirvana]] due in part to the [[Buddha's teachings]]. [[Theravadins]] revere the [[Buddha]] as a single supremely gifted [[person]] but do [[recognize]] the [[existence]] of other such [[Buddhas]] in the distant {{Wiki|past}} and {{Wiki|future}}. [[Maitreya]] ([[Pali]]: [[Metteyya]]), for example, is mentioned very briefly in the [[Pali Canon]] as a [[Buddha]] who will come in the distant {{Wiki|future}}. | ||
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+ | ==[[Scriptures]]== | ||
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+ | [[Image:Kyauksa.JPG|thumb|150px|right|One of the stone inscriptions of the [[World's largest book]], consisting of 729 large marble tablets with the [[Pali Canon]] inscribed on them, at [[Kuthodaw Pagoda]] in {{Wiki|Mandalay}}, [[Burma]]]] | ||
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+ | ===[[Pali Canon]]=== | ||
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''See also: [[Pali Canon]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Pali Canon]]<br/> | ||
− | The Theravada school upholds the Pali Canon or Tipitaka as the most authoritative collection of texts on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. The Sutta and Vinaya portion of the Tipitaka shows considerable overlap in content to the Agamas, the parallel collections used by non-Theravada schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and partially in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Tibetan, and the various non-Theravada Vinayas. On this basis, both these sets of texts are generally believed to be the oldest and most authoritative texts on Buddhism by scholars. It is also believed that much of the Pali Canon, which is still used by Theravāda communities, was transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign of Asoka. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom in those days for religious texts) for some centuries, were finally committed to writing in the last century BC, at what the Theravada usually reckons as the fourth council, in Sri Lanka. Theravada is one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the whole complete set of its Buddhist canon into writing. | + | The [[Theravada school]] upholds the [[Pali Canon]] or [[Tipitaka]] as the most authoritative collection of texts on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]]. The [[Sutta]] and [[Vinaya]] portion of the [[Tipitaka]] shows considerable overlap in content to the [[Agamas]], the parallel collections used by non-Theravada schools in [[India]] which are preserved in {{Wiki|Chinese}} and partially in [[Sanskrit]], [[Prakrit]], and [[Tibetan]], and the various non-Theravada [[Vinayas]]. On this basis, both these sets of texts are generally believed to be the oldest and most authoritative texts on [[Buddhism]] by [[scholars]]. |
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+ | It is also believed that much of the [[Pali Canon]], which is still used by [[Theravāda]] communities, was transmitted to [[Sri Lanka]] during the reign of [[Asoka]]. After being orally transmitted (as was the {{Wiki|custom}} in those days for [[religious]] texts) for some centuries, were finally committed to [[writing]] in the last century BC, at what the [[Theravada]] usually reckons as the [[fourth council]], in [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Theravada]] is one of the first [[Buddhist]] schools to commit the whole complete set of its [[Buddhist canon]] into [[writing]]. | ||
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+ | Much of the material in the [[Canon]] is not specifically "[[Theravadan]]," but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, [[non-sectarian]] [[body]] of teachings. According to [[Peter Harvey]]: | ||
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+ | <blockquote>The [[Theravadans]], then, may have added texts to the [[Canon]] for some [[time]], but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period.</blockquote> | ||
− | + | The [[Pali]] [[Tipitaka]] consists of three parts: the [[Vinaya Pitaka]], [[Sutta Pitaka]] and [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]]. Of these, the [[Abhidhamma Pitaka]] is believed to be a later addition to the first two [[pitakas]], which, in the opinion of many [[scholars]], were the only two [[pitakas]] at the [[time]] of the [[First Buddhist Council]]. The [[Pali]] [[Abhidhamma]] was not [[recognized]] outside the [[Theravada school]]. | |
− | + | The [[Tipitaka]] is composed of 45 volumes in the [[Thai]] edition, 40 in the [[Burmese]] and 58 in the {{Wiki|Sinhalese}}, and a full set of the [[Tipitaka]] is usually kept in its [[own]] (medium-sized) cupboard. | |
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===Commentaries=== | ===Commentaries=== | ||
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− | Theravada Buddhists consider much of what is found in the Chinese and Tibetan Mahayana scriptural collections to be apocryphal, meaning that they are not authentic words of the Buddha. | + | In the 4th or 5th century [[Buddhaghosa]] [[Thera]] wrote the first [[Pali commentaries]] to much of the [[Tipitaka]] (which were based on much older manuscripts, mostly in old {{Wiki|Sinhalese}}). After him many other [[monks]] wrote various commentaries, which have become part of the [[Theravada]] heritage. These texts do not have the same authority as the [[Tipitaka]] does, though [[Buddhaghosas]] [[Visudhimaggha]] is a cornerstone of the {{Wiki|commentarial}} [[tradition]]. |
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+ | The commentaries, together with the [[Abhidhamma]], define the specific [[Theravada]] heritage. Related versions of the [[Sutta Pitaka]] and [[Vinaya Pitaka]] were common to all the [[early Buddhist schools]], and therefore do not define only [[Theravada]], but also the other [[early Buddhist schools]], and perhaps the [[teaching]] of [[Gautama Buddha]] himself. | ||
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+ | [[Theravada Buddhists]] consider much of what is found in the {{Wiki|Chinese}} and [[Tibetan]] [[Mahayana]] [[scriptural]] collections to be {{Wiki|apocryphal}}, meaning that they are not [[Wikipedia:Authenticity|authentic]] words of the [[Buddha]]. | ||
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+ | ===[[Lay and monastic life]]=== | ||
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[[Image:Young monk.jpg|thumb|Young Burmese monk]] | [[Image:Young monk.jpg|thumb|Young Burmese monk]] | ||
''See also: [[Buddhist monasticism]]<br/> | ''See also: [[Buddhist monasticism]]<br/> | ||
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− | The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly termed merit making (falling under Spiro's category of kammatic Buddhism). Merit making activities include offering food and other basic necessities to monks, making donations to temples and monasteries, burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha, and chanting protective or merit-making verses from the Pali Canon. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take a more active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status. Dedicated lay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining temple facilities, etc.). Lay activities have traditionally not extended to study of the Pali scriptures, nor the practice of meditation, though in the 20th Century these areas have become more accessible to the lay community, especially in Thailand. | + | ===[[Distinction between lay and monastic life]]=== |
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+ | [[Traditionally]], [[Theravada Buddhism]] has observed a {{Wiki|distinction}} between the practices suitable for a lay [[person]] and the practices undertaken by [[ordained]] [[monks]] (in {{Wiki|ancient}} times, there was a separate [[body]] of practices for [[nuns]]). While the possibility of significant [[attainment]] by [[laymen]] is not entirely disregarded by the [[Theravada]], it generally occupies a position of less prominence than in the [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana traditions]], with [[monastic]] [[life]] being hailed as a {{Wiki|superior}} method of achieving [[Nirvana]]. The [[view]] that [[Theravada]], unlike other [[Buddhist]] schools, is primarily a [[monastic]] [[tradition]] has, however, been disputed. | ||
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+ | This {{Wiki|distinction}} between [[ordained]] [[monks]] and [[laypeople]] — as well as the {{Wiki|distinction}} between those practices advocated by the [[Pali Canon]], and the {{Wiki|folk}} [[religious]] [[elements]] embraced by many [[monks]] — have motivated some [[scholars]] to consider [[Theravada Buddhism]] to be composed of multiple separate [[traditions]], overlapping though still {{Wiki|distinct}}. | ||
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+ | Most prominently, the anthropologist {{Wiki|Melford Spiro}} in his work [[Buddhism]] and {{Wiki|Society}} separated [[Burmese]] [[Theravada]] into [[three groups]]: Apotropaic [[Buddhism]] (concerned with providing [[protection]] from [[evil spirits]]), [[Kammatic]] [[Buddhism]] (concerned with making [[merit]] for a {{Wiki|future}} [[birth]]), and [[Nibbanic]] [[Buddhism]] (concerned with [[attaining]] the [[liberation]] of [[Nirvana]], as described in the [[Tipitaka]]). | ||
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+ | He stresses that all three are firmly rooted in the [[Pali Canon]]. These categories are not accepted by all [[scholars]], and are usually considered non-exclusive by those who employ them. | ||
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+ | The role of [[lay people]] has [[traditionally]] been primarily occupied with [[activities]] that are commonly termed [[merit]] making (falling under Spiro's category of [[kammatic]] [[Buddhism]]). [[Merit]] making [[activities]] include [[offering]] [[food]] and other basic necessities to [[monks]], making {{Wiki|donations}} to [[temples]] and [[monasteries]], burning [[incense]] or lighting {{Wiki|candles}} before images of the [[Buddha]], and [[chanting]] [[protective]] or merit-making verses from the [[Pali Canon]]. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take a more active role in [[religious]] affairs, while still maintaining their lay {{Wiki|status}}. | ||
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+ | Dedicated lay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their [[temples]], taking part in the financial planning and {{Wiki|management}} of the [[temple]]. Others may volunteer significant [[time]] in tending to the [[mundane]] needs of local [[monks]] (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining [[temple]] facilities, etc.). Lay [[activities]] have [[traditionally]] not extended to study of the [[Pali scriptures]], nor the practice of [[meditation]], though in the 20th Century these areas have become more accessible to the lay {{Wiki|community}}, especially in [[Thailand]]. | ||
[[Image:Monk on pilgrimage.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Thai monks on pilgrimage in their orange robes.]] | [[Image:Monk on pilgrimage.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Thai monks on pilgrimage in their orange robes.]] | ||
− | A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition, including Ajahn Buddhadasa, Luang Ta Maha Bua, Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo, Ajahn Pasanno, and Ajahn Jayasaro, have begun teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for lay disciples. | + | A number of senior [[monastics]] in the [[Thai Forest Tradition]], including [[Ajahn]] [[Buddhadasa]], [[Luang Ta Maha Bua]], [[Ajahn]] [[Plien Panyapatipo]], [[Ajahn]] [[Pasanno]], and [[Ajahn Jayasaro]], have begun [[teaching]] [[meditation]] [[retreats]] outside of the [[monastery]] for lay [[disciples]]. |
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+ | [[Ajahn Chah]], a [[disciple]] of [[Ajahn Mun]], set up a [[monastic]] [[lineage]] called [[Cittaviveka]] with his [[disciple]] [[Ajahn Sumedho]], at [[Chithurst]] in [[West]] Sussex, {{Wiki|England}}. [[Ajahn Sumedho]] later founded the [[Amaravati Buddhist Monastery]] in Hertfordshire, which has a [[retreat]] center specifically for lay [[retreats]]. Sumedho extended this to [[Harnham]] in Northumberland as [[Aruna Ratanagiri]] under the {{Wiki|present}} guidance of [[Ajahn]] [[Munindo]], another [[disciple]] of [[Ajahn Chah]]. | ||
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+ | ===[[Scholar monks and rural monks]]=== | ||
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+ | [[Nirvana]], the [[highest]] goal of [[Theravada Buddhism]], is [[attained]] through study and the practice of [[morality]], [[meditation]] and [[wisdom]] ([[sila]], [[samadhi]], [[panna]]). | ||
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+ | The goal of [[Nirvana]] (and its associated techniques) have [[traditionally]] been seen as the domain of the fully [[ordained]] [[monastic]], whereas many of the same techniques can be used by [[laypeople]] to generate [[happiness]] in their [[lives]], without focusing on [[Nirvana]]. | ||
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+ | [[Monastic]] roles in the [[Theravada]] can be broadly described as being split between the role of the (often urban) [[scholar]] [[monk]] and the (often rural or {{Wiki|forest}}) [[meditation]] [[monk]]. Both types of [[monks]] serve their communities as [[spiritual]] [[teachers]] and officiants by presiding over [[spiritual]] {{Wiki|ceremonies}} and providing instruction in basic [[Buddhist]] [[morality]] and teachings. | ||
− | + | [[Scholar]] [[monks]] undertake the [[path]] of studying and preserving the [[Pali literature]] of the [[Theravada]]. They may devote little [[time]] to the practice of [[meditation]], but may attain great [[respect]] and renown by becoming [[masters]] of a particular section of the [[Pali Canon]] or its commentaries. [[Masters]] of the [[Abhidhamma]], called Abhidhammika, are particularly respected in the {{Wiki|scholastic}} [[tradition]]. | |
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− | + | [[Meditation]] [[monks]], often called {{Wiki|forest}} [[monks]] because of their association with certain wilderness-dwelling [[traditions]], are considered to be specialists in [[meditation]]. While some {{Wiki|forest}} [[monks]] may undertake significant study of the [[Pali Canon]], in general [[meditation]] [[monks]] are expected to learn primarily from their [[meditation]] [[experiences]] and personal [[teachers]], and may not know more of the [[Tipitaka]] than is necessary to participate in liturgical [[life]] and to provide a foundation for fundamental [[Buddhist teachings]]. | |
− | + | More so than the {{Wiki|scholastic}} [[tradition]], the [[meditation]] [[tradition]] is associated with the [[attainment]] of certain [[supernatural powers]] described in both [[Pali]] sources and {{Wiki|folk}} [[tradition]]. These [[powers]] include the [[attainment]] of [[Nirvana]], mind-reading, [[supernatural power]] over material [[objects]] and their [[own]] material [[bodies]], [[seeing]] and conversing with [[gods]] and [[beings]] living in [[hell]], and remembering their {{Wiki|past}} [[lives]]. These [[powers]] are called [[abhiñña]]. Sometimes the remain of the [[Wikipedia:cremation|cremated]] bone fragment of an accomplished {{Wiki|forest}} [[monk]] is believed [[able]] to [[transform]] itself into crystal-like [[relics]] ([[sārira-dhātu]]). | |
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+ | ===[[Ordination]]=== | ||
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[[Image:Candidate for the Buddhist priesthood is ordaining to is a monk in a church.jpg|thumb|250px|Candidate for the Buddhist priesthood is ordaining as a monk in Thailand]] | [[Image:Candidate for the Buddhist priesthood is ordaining to is a monk in a church.jpg|thumb|250px|Candidate for the Buddhist priesthood is ordaining as a monk in Thailand]] | ||
− | The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years, reckoned from conception. However, boys under that age are allowed to ordain as novices (samanera), performing a ceremony such as Shinbyu in Burma. Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow robes, and observe ten basic precepts. Although no specific minimum age for novices is mentioned in the scriptures, traditionally boys as young as seven are accepted. This tradition follows the story of the Lord Buddha’s son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the age of seven. Monks follow 227 rules of discipline, while nuns follow 311 rules. | + | The minimum age for ordaining as a [[Buddhist monk]] is 20 years, reckoned from {{Wiki|conception}}. However, boys under that age are allowed to ordain as novices ([[samanera]]), performing a {{Wiki|ceremony}} such as [[Shinbyu]] in [[Burma]]. |
+ | |||
+ | Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow [[robes]], and observe ten basic [[precepts]]. Although no specific minimum age for novices is mentioned in the [[scriptures]], [[traditionally]] boys as young as seven are accepted. This [[tradition]] follows the story of the [[Lord]] [[Buddha’s]] son, [[Rahula]], who was allowed to become a [[novice]] at the age of seven. [[Monks]] follow 227 {{Wiki|rules}} of [[discipline]], while [[nuns]] follow 311 {{Wiki|rules}}. | ||
− | |||
− | + | In most [[Theravada]] countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as [[monks]] for a fixed period of [[time]]. In [[Thailand]] and [[Burma]], young men typically ordain for the 3 month [[Rain Retreat]] ([[vassa]]), though shorter or longer periods of [[ordination]] are not rare. [[Traditionally]], {{Wiki|temporary}} [[ordination]] was even more flexible among Laotians. | |
− | + | Once they had undergone their initial [[ordination]] as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any [[time]], though [[married]] men were expected to seek their wife's permission. Throughout {{Wiki|Southeast Asia}}, there is little stigma [[attached]] to leaving the [[monastic]] [[life]]. [[Monks]] regularly leave the [[robes]] after acquiring an [[education]], or when compelled by family obligations or ill [[health]]. | |
− | |||
− | Some of the more well-known Theravadan monks are: [[Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta]], [[Ajahn Chah]], [[Ledi Sayadaw]], Ajahn [[Plien Panyapatipo]], [[Ajahn Sumedho]], [[Ajahn Brahm]], [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]], [[Buddhadasa]], [[Mahasi Sayadaw]], [[Nyanaponika Thera]], [[Preah Maha Ghosananda]], [[Sayadaw U Pandita]], [[Ajahn Amaro]], [[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]], [[Walpola Rahula]], [[Bhante Henepola Gunaratana]], and [[Bhante Yogavacara Rahula]]. | + | Ordaining as a [[monk]], even for a short period, is seen as having many [[virtues]]. In many [[Southeast]] {{Wiki|Asian}} cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to "repay" his [[parents]] for their work and [[effort]] in raising him, because the [[merit]] from his [[ordination]] accrues to them as well. [[Thai]] men who have [[ordained]] as a [[monk]] may be seen as more fit husbands by [[Thai]] women, who refer to men who have served as [[monks]] with a colloquial term meaning "ripe" to indicate that they are more mature and ready for [[marriage]]. Particularly in rural areas, {{Wiki|temporary}} [[ordination]] of boys and young men [[traditionally]] gave peasant boys an opportunity to gain an [[education]] in [[temple]] schools without committing to a [[permanent]] [[monastic]] [[life]]. |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | In [[Sri Lanka]], {{Wiki|temporary}} [[ordination]] is not practiced, and a [[monk]] leaving the order is frowned upon. The continuing influence of the [[caste]] system in [[Sri Lanka]] may play a role in the {{Wiki|taboo}} against {{Wiki|temporary}} [[ordination]] and leaving the [[monkhood]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Though [[Sri Lankan]] [[monastic]] [[nikayas]] are often organized along [[caste]] lines, men who ordain as [[monks]] temporarily pass outside of the [[Wikipedia:Convention (norm)|conventional]] [[caste]] system, and as such during their [[time]] as [[monks]] may act (or be treated) in a way that would not be in line with the expected duties and privileges of their [[caste]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Men and women born in {{Wiki|western}} countries, who become [[Buddhists]] as adults, wish to become [[monks]] or [[nuns]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is possible, and one can [[live]] as a [[monk]] or [[nun]] in the country they were born in, seek [[monks]] or [[nuns]] which has [[gathered]] in a different {{Wiki|western}} country or move to a [[monastery]] in countries like [[Sri Lanka]] or [[Thailand]]. It is seen as being easier to [[live]] a [[life]] as a [[monk]] or [[nun]] in countries where [[people]] generally [[live]] by the {{Wiki|culture}} of [[Buddhism]], since it is difficult to [[live]] by the {{Wiki|rules}} of a [[monk]] or a [[nun]] in a {{Wiki|western}} country. | ||
+ | |||
+ | For instance; a [[Theravada]] [[monk]] or [[nun]] is not allowed to work, handle [[money]], listen to {{Wiki|music}}, cook and so on, which are extremely difficult {{Wiki|rules}} to [[live]] by in cultures which do not embrace [[Buddhism]]. The recommendation is usually that to be [[able]] to [[live]] fully as a [[monk]] or [[nun]] you should move to a [[monastery]] in a country with a {{Wiki|culture}} that embraces [[Theravada Buddhism]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Some of the more well-known [[Theravadan]] [[monks]] are: [[Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta]], [[Ajahn Chah]], [[Ledi Sayadaw]], [[Ajahn]] [[Plien Panyapatipo]], [[Ajahn Sumedho]], [[Ajahn Brahm]], [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]], [[Buddhadasa]], [[Mahasi Sayadaw]], [[Nyanaponika Thera]], [[Preah Maha Ghosananda]], [[Sayadaw U Pandita]], [[Ajahn Amaro]], [[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]], [[Walpola Rahula]], [[Bhante Henepola Gunaratana]], and [[Bhante Yogavacara Rahula]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===[[Monastic practices]]=== | ||
+ | |||
− | |||
[[Image:EveningPrayers01a.jpg|thumb|right|210px|A Buddhist Monk chants evening prayers inside a monastery located near the town of Kantharalak, Thailand.]] | [[Image:EveningPrayers01a.jpg|thumb|right|210px|A Buddhist Monk chants evening prayers inside a monastery located near the town of Kantharalak, Thailand.]] | ||
− | The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and monasteries within Theravada | + | The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and [[monasteries]] within [[Theravada]]. |
− | + | But in the most {{Wiki|orthodox}} {{Wiki|forest}} [[monastery]], the [[monk]] usually models his practice and lifestyle on that of the [[Buddha]] and his first generation of [[disciples]] by living close to [[nature]] in {{Wiki|forest}}, [[mountains]] and [[caves]]. {{Wiki|Forest}} [[monasteries]] still keep alive the {{Wiki|ancient}} [[traditions]] through following the [[Buddhist monastic code]] of [[discipline]] in all its detail and developing [[meditation]] in secluded forests. | |
− | |||
− | + | In a typical daily routine at the [[monastery]] during the 3 month [[vassa]] period, the [[monk]] will wake up before dawn and will begin the day with group [[chanting]] and [[meditation]]. At dawn the [[monks]] will go out to surrounding villages bare-footed on [[alms-round]] and will have the only meal of the day before noon by eating from the [[bowl]] by hand. Most of the [[time]] is spent on [[Dhamma]] study and [[meditation]]. | |
− | + | Sometimes the [[abbot]] or a senior [[monk]] will give a [[Dhamma talk]] to the visitors. Laity who stay at the [[monastery]] will have to abide by the [[traditional]] eight [[Buddhist]] [[precepts]]. | |
− | + | The [[life]] of the [[monk]] or [[nun]] in a {{Wiki|community}} is much more complex than the [[life]] of the {{Wiki|forest}} [[monk]]. In the [[Buddhist]] {{Wiki|society}} of [[Sri Lanka]], most [[monks]] spend hours every day in taking care of the needs of [[lay people]] such as preaching bana, accepting [[alms]], officiating [[funerals]], [[teaching]] [[dhamma]] to adults and children in addition to providing {{Wiki|social}} services to the {{Wiki|community}}. | |
− | + | After the end of the [[Vassa]] period, many of the [[monks]] will go out far away from the [[monastery]] to find a remote place (usually in the {{Wiki|forest}}) where they can hang their [[umbrella]] tents and where it is suitable for the work of self-development. | |
− | [[ | + | When they go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go wherever they [[feel]] inclined. Only those requisites which are necessary will be carried along. These generally consist of the [[bowl]], the [[three robes]], a [[bathing]] cloth, an [[umbrella]] tent, a mosquito net, a kettle of [[water]], a [[water]] filter, razor, sandals, some small {{Wiki|candles}}, and a candle lantern. |
− | |||
− | |||
− | + | The [[monks]] do not fix their times for walking and sitting [[meditation]], for as soon as they are free they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long they will go on to [[meditate]]. Some of them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereas at other times they may walk from between two to seven hours. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at [[dangerous]] places where ferocious [[animals]] [[live]] in order to aid their [[meditation]]. | |
− | It is also possible for a lay disciple to become enlightened. As Bhikkhu Bodhi notes, "The Suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana. However, such disciples either attain Arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home as Arahant householders, for dwelling at home is incompatible with the state of one who has severed all craving. | + | Those [[monks]] who have been [[able]] to achieve a high level of [[attainment]] will be [[able]] to [[guide]] the junior [[monks]] and lay [[Buddhists]] toward the four degrees of [[spiritual]] [[attainment]]. |
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===[[Lay devotee]]=== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | [[Image:Vesak in Uttaradit (Thailand) 1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The ceremony walks with lighted candles in hand around a temple on [[Vesak|Vesakha Puja]] in Uttaradit, [[Thailand]].]] | ||
+ | In [[Pali]] the [[word]] for a {{Wiki|male}} lay [[devotee]] is [[Upasaka]]. [[Upasika]] is its {{Wiki|female}} {{Wiki|equivalent}}. | ||
+ | |||
+ | One of the duties of the lay followers, as [[taught]] by the [[Buddha]], is to look after the needs of the monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do not [[suffer]] from lack of the four requisites: [[food]], clothing, [[shelter]] and [[medicine]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | As neither [[monks]] nor [[nuns]] are allowed to have an {{Wiki|occupation}}, they depend entirely on the laity for their [[sustenance]]. In return for this [[charity]], they are expected to lead exemplary [[lives]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In [[Burma]] and [[Thailand]], the [[monastery]] was and is still regarded as a seat of {{Wiki|learning}}. In fact today about half of the primary schools in [[Thailand]] are located in [[monasteries]]. [[Religious]] [[rituals]] and {{Wiki|ceremonies}} held in a [[monastery]] are always accompanied by {{Wiki|social}} [[activities]]. In times of crisis, it is to the [[monks]] that [[people]] bring their problems for counsel. | ||
+ | |||
+ | [[Traditionally]], a ranking [[monk]] will deliver a {{Wiki|sermon}} four times a month: when the [[moon]] waxes and wanes and the day before the new and [[full moons]]. The laity also have a chance to learn [[meditation]] from the [[monks]] during these times. | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is also possible for a lay [[disciple]] to become [[enlightened]]. As [[Bhikkhu Bodhi]] notes, "The [[Suttas]] and commentaries do record a few cases of lay [[disciples]] [[attaining]] the final goal of [[Nirvana]]. However, such [[disciples]] either attain [[Arahantship]] on the brink of [[death]] or enter the [[monastic order]] soon after their [[attainment]]. They do not continue to dwell at [[home]] as [[Arahant]] householders, for dwelling at [[home]] is incompatible with the [[state]] of one who has severed all [[craving]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===[[Monastic orders within Theravada]]=== | ||
− | |||
[[Image:Thai Buddhist monk blesses.jpg|thumb|250px|rightt|Thai monks blessing the King of Thailand in Wat Nong Wong Amphoe Sawankhalok, Sukhothai, Thailand.]] | [[Image:Thai Buddhist monk blesses.jpg|thumb|250px|rightt|Thai monks blessing the King of Thailand in Wat Nong Wong Amphoe Sawankhalok, Sukhothai, Thailand.]] | ||
− | Theravada monks typically belong to a particular ''[[nikaya]]'', variously referred to as monastic orders or fraternities. These different orders do not typically develop separate doctrines, but may differ in the manner in which they observe monastic rules. These monastic orders represent lineages of ordination, typically tracing their origin to a particular group of monks that established a new ordination tradition within a particular country or geographic area. | + | [[Theravada]] [[monks]] typically belong to a particular ''[[nikaya]]'', variously referred to as [[monastic]] orders or fraternities. These different orders do not typically develop separate [[doctrines]], but may differ in the [[manner]] in which they observe [[monastic rules]]. These [[monastic]] orders represent [[lineages]] of [[ordination]], typically tracing their origin to a particular group of [[monks]] that established a new [[ordination]] [[tradition]] within a particular country or geographic area. |
+ | |||
+ | In [[Sri Lanka]] [[caste]] plays a major role in the [[division]] into [[nikayas]]. Some [[Theravada]] [[Buddhist]] countries appoint or elect a [[sangharaja]], or Supreme [[Patriarch]] of the [[Sangha]], as the [[highest]] ranking or senior most [[monk]] in a particular area, or from a particular [[nikaya]]. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The demise of monarchies has resulted in the [[suspension]] of these posts in some countries, but [[patriarchs]] have continued to be appointed in [[Thailand]]. [[Burma]] and [[Cambodia]] ended the practice of appointing a [[sangharaja]] for some [[time]], but the position was later restored, though in [[Cambodia]] it lapsed again. | ||
− | |||
− | :*''Bangladesh'': | + | :*''{{Wiki|Bangladesh}}'': |
:**[[Sangharaj Nikaya]] | :**[[Sangharaj Nikaya]] | ||
:**[[Mahasthabir Nikaya]] | :**[[Mahasthabir Nikaya]] | ||
− | :*''Burma'' (Myanmar): | + | :*''[[Burma]]'' ({{Wiki|Myanmar}}): |
:**[[Thudhamma Nikaya]] | :**[[Thudhamma Nikaya]] | ||
:**[[Shwekyin Nikaya]] | :**[[Shwekyin Nikaya]] | ||
− | :**Dvara Nikaya | + | :**[[Dvara]] [[Nikaya]] |
− | :*''Sri Lanka'': | + | :*''[[Sri Lanka]]'': |
:**[[Siam Nikaya]] | :**[[Siam Nikaya]] | ||
:***[[Rohana]] | :***[[Rohana]] | ||
− | :***Malwaththa | + | :***[[Malwaththa]] |
:***[[Asgiriya]] | :***[[Asgiriya]] | ||
− | :***Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya) | + | :***[[Waturawila]] (or [[Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali Vanavasa Nikaya]]) |
:**[[Amarapura Nikaya]] has many Sub orders including | :**[[Amarapura Nikaya]] has many Sub orders including | ||
− | :***Dharmarakshitha | + | :***[[Dharmarakshitha]] |
− | :***Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya) | + | :***[[Kanduboda]] (or Swejin [[Nikaya]]) |
− | :***Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa) | + | :***[[Tapovana]] (or [[Kalyanavamsa]]) |
:**[[Ramanna Nikaya|Ramañña Nikaya]] | :**[[Ramanna Nikaya|Ramañña Nikaya]] | ||
− | :***[[Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Samstha]] (or 'Galduwa Tradition') | + | :***[[Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Samstha]] (or '[[Galduwa]] [[Tradition]]') |
− | :***Delduwa | + | :***[[Delduwa]] |
− | :*''Thailand and Cambodia'' | + | :*''[[Thailand]] and [[Cambodia]]'' |
:**[[Maha Nikaya]] | :**[[Maha Nikaya]] | ||
:**[[Dhammayuttika Nikaya]] | :**[[Dhammayuttika Nikaya]] | ||
− | ==Festivals and customs== | + | |
+ | |||
+ | =={{Wiki|Festivals}} and customs== | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
# [[Magha Puja]] | # [[Magha Puja]] | ||
# [[Vesakha Puja]] | # [[Vesakha Puja]] | ||
# [[Asalha Puja]] | # [[Asalha Puja]] | ||
# [[Uposatha]] | # [[Uposatha]] | ||
− | # [[Vassa]] (Rain Retreat) | + | # [[Vassa]] ([[Rain]] [[Retreat]]) |
− | + | {{W}} | |
[[Wikipedia:Theravada]] | [[Wikipedia:Theravada]] | ||
− | [[Category: | + | [[Category:Theravada Buddhism]] |
− | + | [[Category:Buddhist Terms]] | |
__NOTOC__ | __NOTOC__ |
Latest revision as of 09:39, 24 February 2015
Theravada, Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda is literally "the Teaching of the Elders." The name comes from the ancestral Sthaviravada, from which the Theravadins claim descent. After unsuccessfully trying to modify the Vinaya, a small group of 'elderly members' i.e. sthaviras broke away from the majority during the Second Buddhist council, giving rise to the Sthaviravada.
Unlike Mahayanists, Theravadins follow crypto-realist Abhidharma.
The term Theravāda Buddhism refers, first, to a "school" and closely related "orientations" within the history of Buddhist monasticism and, second, to forms of Buddhist religious, political, and social life in various Buddhist countries.
Although these two aspects of Theravāda Buddhism must be distinguished, they overlap and interact in various ways at different points in Theravāda history.
In the present article, the specifically monastic aspects will receive priority, but reference will be made to the civilizational dimension as well.
For many centuries, it has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (now about 70% of the population) and most of continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand).
Theravada is also practiced by minorities in parts of southwest China (mainly by the Shan and Tai ethnic groups), Vietnam (by the Khmer Krom), Bangladesh (by the ethnic groups of Baruas, Chakma, Magh, and Tanchangya), Malaysia and Indonesia, while recently gaining popularity in Singapore and the Western world.
Today, Theravada Buddhists, otherwise known as Theravadins, number over 150 million worldwide, and during the past few decades Theravada Buddhism has begun to take root in the West[a] and in the Buddhist revival in India.
History
Indian origins
![](/en/images/thumb/4/4e/Mahabodhitemple.jpg/150px-Mahabodhitemple.jpg)
According to its own accounts, the Theravāda school is fundamentally derived from the Vibhajjavāda (or "doctrine of analysis") grouping which was a division of the Sthavira ("Elders") stream. The Sthavira were in turn a breakaway group from the majority Mahāsāṃghika during the Second Buddhist council.
Theravadin accounts of its own origins mention that it received the teachings that were agreed upon the Third Buddhist Council, around 250 BCE, and these teachings were known as the Vibhajjavada. The Vibhajjavādins in turn split into four groups: the Mahīśāsaka, Kāśyapīya, Dharmaguptaka, and the Tāmraparnīya.
Sri Lanka
The Theravada is descended from the Tāmraparnīya, which means "the Sri Lankan lineage." In the 7th century CE, Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yijing refer to the Buddhist schools in Sri Lanka as Shàngzuòbù (Ch. 上座部), corresponding to the Sanskrit "Sthavira" and the Pali "Thera." The school has been using the name Theravada for itself in a written form since at least the 4th century, when the term appears in the Dipavamsa.
Transmission to Sri Lanka
According to Buddhist scholar A.K. Warder, the Theravada
... spread rapidly south from Avanti into Maharastra and Andhra and down to the Chola country (Kanchi), as well as Ceylon. For some time they maintained themselves in Avanti as well as in their new territories, but gradually they tended to regroup themselves in the south, the Great Vihara (Mahavihara) in Anuradhapura, the capital of Ceylon, becoming the main centre of their tradition, Kanchi a secondary center and the northern regions apparently relinquished to other schools.
According to the Pāli chronicles of the Sinhalese tradition, Buddhism was first brought to Sri Lanka by Arahant Mahinda, who is believed to have been the son of the Mauryan emperor Asoka, in the third century BCE, as a part of the dhammaduta (missionary) activities of the Asokan era. In Sri Lanka, Arahant Mahinda established the Mahāvihāra Monastery of Anuradhapura.
Subdivisions
Over much of the early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, three subdivisions of Theravāda existed in Sri Lanka, consisting of the monks of the Mahāvihāra, Abhayagiri Vihāra, and the Jetavana Vihāra. Mahāvihāra is the first tradition to be established, while Abhayagiri Vihāra and Jetavana Vihāra is established by monks who have broke away from Mahāvihāra tradition. According to A.K. Warder, the Indian Mahīśāsaka sect also established itself in Sri Lanka alongside the Theravāda, into which they were later absorbed. Northern regions of Sri Lanka also seem to have been ceded to sects from India at certain times.
![](/en/images/thumb/c/c4/Dambulla_16.jpg/250px-Dambulla_16.jpg)
When the Chinese monk Faxian visited the island in the early 5th century CE, he noted 5000 monks at Abhayagiri, 3000 monks at the Mahāvihāra, and 2000 monks at the Cetiyapabbatavihāra.
Mahayana-influences
Over the centuries, the Abhayagiri Theravādins maintained close relations with Indian Buddhists and adopted many new teachings from India. including many elements from Mahāyāna teachings, while the Jetavana Theravādins adopted Mahāyāna to a lesser extent.
Xuanzang wrote of two major divisions of Theravāda in Sri Lanka, referring to the Abhayagiri tradition as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras," and the Mahāvihāra tradition as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras."
Akira Hirakawa notes that the surviving Pāli commentaries (Aṭṭhakathā) of the Mahāvihāra school, when examined closely, also include a number of positions that agree with Mahāyāna teachings. Kalupahana notes the same for the Visuddhimagga, the most important Theravada commentary.
In the 8th century CE, it is known that both Mahāyāna and the esoteric Vajrayāna form of Buddhism were being practiced in Sri Lanka, and two Indian monks responsible for propagating Esoteric Buddhism in China, Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra, visited the island during this time. Abhayagiri Vihāra appears to have been a center for Theravadin Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna teachings.
Abolition of other Theravāda traditions
Some scholars have held that the rulers of Sri Lanka ensured that Theravāda remained traditional, and that this characteristic contrasts with Indian Buddhism. However, before the 12th century CE, more rulers of Sri Lanka gave support and patronage to the Abhayagiri Theravādins, and travelers such as Faxian saw the Abhayagiri Theravādins as the main Buddhist tradition in Sri Lanka.
The trend of Abhayagiri Vihara being the dominant Theravāda sect changed in the 12th century CE, when the Mahāvihāra gained the political support of King Parakkamabāhu I (1153-1186 CE), and completely abolished the Abhayagiri and Jetavana Theravāda traditions. The Theravāda monks of these two traditions were then defrocked and given the choice of either returning to the laity permanently, or attempting re-ordination under the Mahāvihāra tradition as "novices" (sāmaṇera).
Regarding the differences between these three Theravāda traditions, the Cūḷavaṁsa laments, "Despite the vast efforts made in every way by former kings down to the present day, the Bhikkhus turned away in their demeanor from one another and took delight in all kinds of strife."
Lineage of nuns
A few years after the arrival of Sthavira Mahinda, Bhikkhuni Sanghamitta, who is also believed to be the daughter of Emperor Asoka, came to Sri Lanka. She started the first nun's order in Sri Lanka, but this order of nuns died out in Sri Lanka in the 11th century and in Burma in the 13th. In 429 CE, by request of China's emperor, nuns from Anuradhapura were sent to China to establish the Nun's Order.
The order was then spread to Korea. In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lankan nuns were ordained fully as Bhikkhunis by a team of Theravāda monks in concert with a team of Korean Nuns in India.
There is disagreement among Theravada vinaya authorities as to whether such ordinations are valid. In the last few years the head of the Dambulla chapter of the Siyam Nikaya in Sri Lanka has carried out ordination ceremonies for hundreds of nuns.
This has been criticized by other leading figures in the Siyam Nikaya and Amarapura Nikaya, and the governing council of Burmese Buddhism has declared that there can be no valid ordination of nuns in modern times, though some Burmese monks disagree with this.
Southeast Asia
According to Mahavamsa the Sri Lanka chronicle, after the conclusion of the Third Buddhist Council, a missionary was also sent to Suvannabhumi where two monks Sona and Uttara, are said to have proceeded. Scholar opinions differ as to where exactly this land of Suvannabhumi is located, but Suvannabhumi is believed to be located somewhere in the area which now includes lower Burma, Thailand, Malay Peninsula and Sumatra Island.
Before the 12th century, the areas of Thailand, Burma, Laos, and Cambodia were dominated by various Buddhist sects from India, and included the teachings of Mahāyāna Buddhism. In the 7th century, Yijing noted in his travels that in these areas, all major sects of Indian Buddhism flourished.
Burma
Though there are some early accounts that have been interpreted as Theravāda in Burma, the surviving records show that most Burmese Buddhism incorporated Mahāyāna, and used Sanskrit rather than Pali. After the decline of Buddhism in India, missions of monks from Sri Lanka gradually converted Burmese Buddhism to Theravāda, and in the next two centuries also brought Theravāda Buddhism to the areas of Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, where it supplanted previous forms of Buddhism.
The Mon and Pyu were among the earliest people to inhabit Burma. Recent archaeological research at a Pyu settlement in the Samon Valley (around 100 km south-east of Bagan) has shown that they had trade links with India from 500-400 BC and with China around 200 BC.
Chinese sources which have been dated to around 240 A.D. mention a Buddhist kingdom by the name of Lin-Yang, which some scholars have identified as the ancient Pyu kingdom of Beikthano 300 km north of Yangon.
The oldest surviving Buddhist texts in the Pali language come from Pyu city of Sri Ksetra, the text which is dated from the mid 5th A.D. to mid 6th A.D. is written on twenty-leaf manuscript of solid gold. The Burmese slowly became Theravadan when they came into contact with the Pyu and Mon civilization. The Thais also slowly became Theravadan as they came into contact with the Mon civilization.
China
Despite its success in Southeast Asia, Theravada Buddhism in China has generally been limited to areas bordering Theravada countries.
Modernisation and spread to the west
See also: Buddhist modernism and Vipassana movement
In the 19th century began a process of mutual influence of both Asian Theravadins and a western audience interested in ancient wisdom. Especially Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, founders of the Theosophical Society had a profound role in this process. In Theravada countries developed a lay vipassana practice. From the 1970s on western interest gave way to the growth of the so-called Vipassana movement in the west
Reaction against western colonialism
Buddhist revivalism has also reacted against changes in Buddhism caused by colonialist regimes. Western colonialists and Christian missionaries deliberately imposed a particular type of Christian monasticism on Buddhist clergy in Sri Lanka and colonies in Southeast Asia, restricting monks' activities to individual purification and temple ministries.
Prior to British colonial control, monks in both Sri Lanka and Burma had been responsible for the education of the children of lay people, and had produced large bodies of literature. After the British takeover, Buddhist temples were strictly administered and were only permitted to use their funds on strictly religious activities. Christian ministers were given control of the education system and their pay became state funding for missions.
Foreign, especially British, rule had an enervating effect on the sangha. According to Walpola Rahula, Christian missionaries displaced and appropriated the educational, social, and welfare activities of the monks, and inculcated a permanent shift in views regarding the proper position of monks in society through their institutional influence upon the elite.
Many monks in post-colonial times have been dedicated to undoing this paradigm shift. Movements intending to restore Buddhism's place in society have developed in both Sri Lanka and Burma.
One of the results of the reactions against western colonialism was the modernisation of Theravada Buddhism, incorporating western elements, and opening meditation practice for a lay audience. It are those modernized forms of Theravada practice which have been spread to the west.
Sri Lanka
See also: Buddhism in Sri Lanka
At Sri Lanka Theravadins were looking at western culture to find means to revitalize their own tradition. Christian missionaries were threatening the indigenous culture.
As a reaction, Theravadins started to propagate Theravada Buddhism. They were aided by Theosophists, who were looking for ancient wisdom, and expected this to be found, among other possible sources, within Buddhism and the Pali canon.
Anagarika Dharmapala was one of the Tharavada leaders with whom the Theosophists sided. Dharmapala tried to reinstate vipassana, taking the visudhimagga and the Pali canon to find out a workable method. Dharmapala reached out to the middle classes, offering them religious practice and a religious identity, which were used to withstand the British imperialists.
A practical consequence was a change in the religious configuration of the island, with lay practitioners practicing meditation, which before was reserved for monks.
The translation and publication of the Pali canon by the Pali Text Society, which for the first time in history made the pali canon available to a lay audience, not only in the west, but also in the east. Western lay interest in Theravada Buddhism was promoted by the Theosophical Society, and endured until the beginning of the 20th century. During the 1970s interest rose again, leading to a surge of westerners searching for enlightenment, and the republishing of the Pali canon, first in print, and later also at the web.
Thailand
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See also: Buddhism in Thailandand Thai Forest Tradition
With the coming to power in 1851 of King Mongkut, who had been a monk himself for twenty-seven years, the sangha, like the kingdom, became steadily more centralized and hierarchical, and its links to the state more institutionalized. Mongkut was a distinguished scholar of Pali Buddhist scripture. Moreover, at that time the immigration of numbers of monks from Burma was introducing the more rigorous discipline characteristic of the Mon sangha. Influenced by the Mon and guided by his own understanding of the Tipitaka, Mongkut began a reform movement that later became the basis for the Dhammayuttika order of monks.
In the early 1900s, Thailand's Ajahn Sao Kantasilo Mahathera and his student, Mun Bhuridatta led the Thai Forest Tradition revival movement. In the 20th century notable practitioners included Ajahn Thate, Ajahn Maha Bua and Ajahn Chah. It was later spread globally by Ajahn Mun's students including Ajahn Thate, Ajahn Maha Bua and Ajahn Chah and several western disciples, among whom the most senior is Luang Por Ajahn Sumedho.
Burma
See also: Buddhism in Burma
Birmese Theravada Buddhism has had a profound influence on modern vipassana practice, both for lay practitioners in Asia as lay practitioners in the west.
The so-called "New Burmese method" was developed by U Nārada and popularized by his students Mahasi Sayadaw and Nyanaponika Thera. Another prominent teacher is Bikkhu Bodhi, a student of Nyanaponika.
The New Burmese Method strongly emphasizes vipassana over samatha. It is regarded as a simplification of traditional Buddhist meditation techniques, suitable not only for monks but also for lay-practitioners. The method has been popularized in the west by teachers as Joseph Goldstein, Jack Kornfield, Tara Brach, Gil Fronsdal and Sharon Salzberg.
The Ledi lineage begins with Ledi Sayadaw. S.N. Goenka is a well-known teacher in the Ledi-lineage. According to S. N. Goenka, vipassana-techniques are essentially non-sectarian in character, and have universal application. One need not convert to Buddhism to practice these styles of meditation.
Meditation centers teaching the vipassanā popularized by S. N. Goenka exist now in India, Asia, North and South America, Europe, Australia, Middle East and Africa.
Modern developments
The following modern trends or movements have been identified.
- Modernism: attempts to adapt to the modern world and adopt some of its ideas; including, among other things
- Green movement
- Syncretism with other Buddhist traditions
- Universal inclusivity
- Reformism: attempts to restore a supposed earlier, ideal state of Buddhism; includes in particular the adoption of Western scholars' theories of original Buddhism (in recent times the "Western scholarly interpretation of Buddhism" is the official Buddhism prevailing in Sri Lanka and Thailand.)
- Ultimatism: tendency to concentrate on advanced teachings such as the Four Noble Truths at the expense of more elementary ones
- Neotraditionalism; includes among other things
- Revival of ritualism
- Remythologization
- Insight meditation
- Social action
- Devotional religiosity
- Reaction to Buddhist nationalism
- Renewal of forest monks
- Revival of samatha meditation
- Revival of the Theravada bhikkhuni lineage (not recognized in Thailand)
Doctrinal differences with other schools
See also: Early Buddhism, Pre-sectarian Buddhism, Early Buddhist schools
The Sthaviravada, from which Theravada is derived, differed from other early Buddhist schools on a variety of teachings, which are maintained by the Theravada school. The differences resulted from the systematizion of the Buddhist teachings, which was preserved in the Abdhidhammas of the various schools.
The Abhidhamma is "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalized language [...] assumed to constitute a consistent system of philosophy". It's aim is not the empirical verification of the Buddhist teachings, but "to set forth the correct interpretation of the Buddha's statements in the Sutra to restate his 'system' with perfect accuracy".
The Arahant is perfect
The Mahāsāṃghika believed that Arahants could regress, while the Theravada believes that the Arahant has an "incorruptible nature"
Insight is sudden and perfect
According to the Sthaviravada/Theravada, "progress in understanding comes all at once, 'insight' (abhisamaya) does not come 'gradually' (successively - anapurva)". This is reflected in the Theravada-account on the four levels of attainment, in which the attainment of the four paths appears suddenly, and the defilements are rooted out at once. The same stance is taken in the contemporary Vipassana movement, especially the so-called "New Burmese Method".
Dharmas
The commentaries gave a new definition of "a 'principle' or 'element' (dharma)":
Dharmas are what have (or 'hold', 'maintain', dhr is the nearest equivalent in the language to the English 'have') their own own-being (svabhava). It is added that they naturally (yathasvabhavatas) have this through conditions (pratyaya). The idea is that they are distinct, definable, principles in the constitution of the universe."
Teachings
Theravada promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis." This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith. However, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged.
Theravada orthodoxy takes the seven stages of purification as its basic outline of the path to be followed.
The Theravada Path starts with learning, to be followed by practice, culminating in the realization of Nirvana.
Learning
The Three Characteristics
See also: Three marks of existence
Throughout the Pail-canon two characteristics of all conditioned phenomena and one characteristic of all dhammas are being mentioned. The Theravada tradition has grouped them together. Insight into these three characteristics is the entry to the Buddhist path:
- Anicca (impermanence): All conditioned phenomena are subject to change, including physical characteristics, qualities, assumptions, theories, knowledge, etc. Nothing is permanent, because, for something to be permanent, there has to be an unchanging cause behind it. Since all causes are recursively bound together, there can be no ultimate unchanging cause.
- Dukkha (suffering): Craving causes suffering, since what is craved is transitory, changing, and perishing. The craving for impermanent things causes disappointment and sorrow.
There is a tendency to label practically everything in the world, as either "good," "comfortable" or "satisfying;" or "bad", "uncomfortable," and "unsatisfying." Labeling things in terms of like and dislike creates suffering.
If one succeeds in giving up the tendency to label things and free himself from the instincts that drive him towards attaining what he himself labels collectively as "liking," he attains the ultimate freedom. The problem, the cause, the solution and the implementation, all of these are within oneself, not outside.
- Anatta (not-self): all dhammas lack a fixed, unchanging 'essence'; there is no permanent, essential Self.
A living being is a composite of the five aggregates (khandhas), which is the physical forms (rupa), feelings or sensations (vedana), perception (sanna), mental formations (sankhara), and consciousness (vinnana), none of which can be identified as one's Self.
From the moment of conception, all entities (including all living beings) are subject to a process of continuous change. A practitioner should, on the other hand, develop and refine his or her mind to a state so as to see through this phenomenon.
Truly understanding this counter-intuitive concept of Buddhism requires direct and personal experience. This is given in vipassana-practice.closely watching the continuous changes in the Five Aggregates,
Dukkha - The Four Noble Truths
See also: Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths are described as follows:
- Dukkha (suffering): This can be somewhat broadly classified into three categories. Inherent suffering, or the suffering one undergoes in all the worldly activities, what one suffers in day-to-day life: birth, aging, diseases, death, sadness, etc.
In short, all that one feels from separating from "loving" attachments and/or associating with "hating" attachments is encompassed into the term.
The second class of suffering, called Suffering due to Change, implies that things suffer due to attaching themselves to a momentary state which is held to be "good"; when that state is changed, things are subjected to suffering.
The third, termed Sankhara Dukkha, is the most subtle.
Beings suffer simply by not realizing that they are mere aggregates with no definite, unchanging identity.
- Dukkha Samudaya (cause of suffering): Craving, which leads to Attachment and Bondage, is the cause of suffering.
Formally, this is termed Tanha. It can be classified into three instinctive drives.
Kama Tanha is the Craving for any pleasurable sense object (which involves sight, sound, touch, taste, smell and mental perceptives).
Bhava Tanha is the Craving for attachment to an ongoing process, which appears in various forms, including the longing for existence. Vibhava Tanha is the Craving for detachment from a process, which includes non-existence and causes the longing for self-annihilation.
- Dukkha Nirodha (cessation of suffering): One cannot possibly adjust the whole world to one's taste in order to eliminate suffering and hope that it will remain so forever.
This would violate the chief principle of Change. Instead, one adjusts one's own mind through detachment so that the Change, of whatever nature, has no effect on one's peace of mind. Briefly stated, the third Noble Truth implies that elimination of the cause (craving) eliminates the result (suffering).
This is inferred in the scriptural quote by The Buddha, 'Whatever may result from a cause, shall be eliminated by the elimination of the cause'.
- Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada (pathway to freedom from suffering):
This is the Noble Eightfold Pathway towards freedom or Nirvana. The path can roughly be rendered into English as right view, right intention, right speech, right actions, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.
Defilements
See also: Kleshas
In Theravada, the cause of human existence and suffering (dukkha) is identified as craving (tanha), which carries with it the defilements (kilesas). Those defilements that bind humans to the cycle of rebirth are classified into a set of ten "Fetters," while those defilements that impede concentration (samadhi) are presented in a fivefold set called the "Five Hindrances."
The level of defilement can be coarse, medium, and subtle. It is a phenomenon that frequently arises, remains temporarily and then vanishes. Theravadins believe defilements are not only harmful to oneself, but also harmful to others. They are the driving force behind all inhumanities a human being can commit.
There are three stages of defilements. During the stage of passivity the defilements lie dormant at the base of the mental continuum as latent tendencies (anusaya), but through the impact of sensory stimulus, they will manifest (pariyutthana) themselves at the surface of consciousness in the form of unwholesome thoughts, emotions, and volitions.
If they gather additional strength, the defilements will reach the dangerous stage of transgression (vitikkama), which will then involve physical or vocal actions.
Ignorance
See also: Avijja
Theravadins believe these defilements are habits born out of ignorance that afflict the minds of all unenlightened beings, who cling to them and their influence in their ignorance of the truth. But in reality, those mental defilements are nothing more than taints that have afflicted the mind, creating suffering and stress.
Unenlightened beings cling to the body, under the assumption that it represents a Self, whereas in reality the body is an impermanent phenomenon formed from the four basic elements. Often characterized by earth, water, fire and air, in the early Buddhist texts these are defined to be abstractions representing the sensorial qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility, respectively.
The mental defilements' frequent instigation and manipulation of the mind is believed to have prevented the mind from seeing the true nature of reality. Unskillful behavior in turn can strengthen the defilements, but following the Noble Eightfold Path can weaken or eradicate them. Avijja is destroyed by insight.
Cause and Effect
See also: Pratītyasamutpāda
The Concept of Cause and Effect, or Causality, is a key concept in Theravada, and indeed, in Buddhism as a whole. This concept is expressed in several ways, including the Four Noble Truths, and most importantly, the Paticca-Samuppāda (dependent co-arising).
Abhidhamma in Theravada canon differentiate between a root cause (Hetu) and facilitating cause (pacca). By the combined interaction of both these, an effect is brought about. On top of this view, a logic is built and elaborated whose most supple form can be seen in the Paticca Samuppāda.
This concept is then used to question the nature of suffering and to elucidate the way out of it, as expressed in the Four Noble Truths. It is also employed in several suttas to refute several philosophies including creationism.
By taking away a cause, the result will also disappear. From this follows the Buddhist path to end suffering and existence in samsara.
Practice
Theravada orthodoxy takes the seven stages of purification as the basic outline of the path to be followed. This basic outline is based on the threefold discipline of Sīla (ethics or discipline), Samādhi (meditative concentration), Pañña (understanding or wisdom). The emphasis is on understanding the three marks of existence, which removes vijnana, ignorance. Understanding destroys the Ten Fetters and leads to Nirvana.
Theravadins believe that every individual is personally responsible for their own self-awakening and liberation, as they are the ones that were responsible for their own actions and consequences (Sanskrit: karma; Pali: kamma). Simply learning or believing in the true nature of reality as expounded by the Buddha is not enough, the awakening can only be achieved through direct experience and personal realization. Yet there is a widespread believe in Theravada that we're living in a degenerated epoch, in which true liberation is no longer possible.
Noble Eightfold Path and Threefold Discipline
See also: Noble Eightfold Path
In the Sutta Pitaka the path to liberation is described by the Noble Eightfold Path:
The Blessed One said, "Now what, monks, is the Noble Eightfold Path? Right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.
The Noble Eightfold Path can also be summarized as the Three Noble Disciplines. These are known as discipline (sīla), wisdom (paññā), and training of mind (samādhi).
Seven purification's
The Visuddhimagga, written in the fifth century CE by Buddhaghosa, has become the orthodox account of the Theravda path to liberation. It gives a sequence of seven purifications, based on the sequence of sila, samadhi and prajna.
It is composed of three sections, which discuss: 1) Sīla (ethics or discipline); 2) Samādhi (meditative concentration); 3) Pañña (understanding or wisdom).
- The first section (part 1) explains the rules of discipline, and the method for finding a correct temple to practice, or how to meet a good teacher.
- The second section (part 2) describes samatha's practice, object by object (see Kammatthana for the list of the forty traditional objects). It mentions different stages of concentration.
- The third section (part 3-7) is a description of the five skandhas (aggregates), ayatanas, the Four Noble Truths, dependent origination (Pratitya-samutpada), and the practice of vipassana through the development of wisdom. It emphasizes different forms of knowledge emerging because of the practice. This part shows a great analytical effort specific to Buddhist philosophy.
The seven purification's are:
- Purification of Conduct (sīla-visuddhi)
- Purification of Mind (citta-visuddhi)
- Purification of View (ditthi-visuddhi)
- Purification by Overcoming Doubt (kankha-vitarana-visuddhi)
- Purification by Knowledge and Vision of What Is Path and Not Path (maggamagga-ñanadassana-visuddhi)
- Purification by Knowledge and Vision of the Course of Practice (patipada-ñanadassana-visuddhi)
- Knowledge of contemplation of rise and fall (udayabbayanupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of contemplation of dissolution (bhanganupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of appearance as terror (bhayatupatthana-nana)
- Knowledge of contemplation of danger (adinavanupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of contemplation of dispassion (nibbidanupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of desire for deliverance (muncitukamyata-nana)
- Knowledge of contemplation of reflection (patisankhanupassana-nana)
- Knowledge of equanimity about formations (sankharupekka-nana)
- Conformity knowledge (anuloma-nana)
- Purification by Knowledge and Vision (ñanadassana-visuddhi)
The "Purification by Knowledge and Vision" is the culmination of the practice, in four stages leading to liberation and Nirvana.
The emphasis in this system is on understanding the three marks of existence, dukkha, anatta, anicca. This emphasis is recognizable in the value that is given to vipassana over samatha, especially in the contemporary vipassana movement.
Meditation
See also: Buddhist meditation
Theravada Buddhist meditation practices fall into two broad categories: samatha, and vipassanā. This distinction is not made in the suttas, but in the Visuddhimagga. Some common terms encountered in the Theravada practice of meditation are:
Meditation (Pali: Bhavana) means the positive reinforcement of one's mind. Broadly categorized into Samatha and Vipassana, Meditation is the key tool implemented in attaining jhana. Samatha literally means "to make skillful," and has other renderings also, among which are "tranquilizing, calming," "visualizing," and "achieving." Vipassana means "insight" or "abstract understanding." In this context, Samatha Meditation makes a person skillful in concentration of mind. Once the mind is sufficiently concentrated, Vipassana allows one to see through the veil of ignorance.
In order to be free from suffering and stress, Theravadins believe that the defilements need to be permanently uprooted. Initially the defilements are restrained through mindfulness to prevent them from taking over mental and bodily action.
They are then uprooted through internal investigation, analysis, experience and understanding of their true nature by using jhana. This process needs to be repeated for each and every defilement. The practice will then lead the meditator to realize Nirvana.
Samatha meditation
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See also: Samatha
The samatha meditation in Theravada is usually involved with the concepts of Kammaṭṭhāna which literally stands for "place of work"; in this context, it is the "place" or object of concentration (Pāli: Ārammana) where the mind is at work. In samatha meditation, the mind is set at work concentrated on one particular entity. There are forty such classic objects (entities) used in samatha meditation, which are termed Kammaṭṭhāna. By acquiring a Kammaṭṭhāna and practising samatha meditation, one would be able to attain certain elevated states of awareness and skill of the mind called Jhana. Practising samatha has samadhi (concentration) as its ultimate goal.
It should be noted that samatha is not a method that is unique to Buddhism. In the suttas it is said to be implemented in other contemporary religions in India at the time of Buddha. In fact, the first teachers of Siddhartha, before they attained the state of awakening (Pāli: Bodhi), are said to have been quite skillful in samatha (although the term had not been coined yet).
In the Pali Canon discourses, the Buddha frequently instructs his disciples to practice samadhi (concentration) in order to establish and develop jhana (full concentration). Jhana is the instrument used by the Buddha himself to penetrate the true nature of phenomena (through investigation and direct experience) and to reach Enlightenment. Right Concentration (samma-samadhi) is one of the elements in the Noble Eightfold Path.
Samadhi can be developed from mindfulness developed with kammaṭṭhāna such as concentration on breathing (anapanasati), from visual objects (kasina), and repetition of phrases. The traditional list contains 40 objects of meditation (kammaṭṭhāna) to be used for Samatha Meditation.
Every object has a specific goal; for example, meditation on the parts of the body (kayanupassana or kayagathasathi) will result in a lessening of attachment to our own bodies and those of others, resulting in a reduction of sensual desires. Mettā (loving kindness) generates the feelings of goodwill and happiness toward ourselves and other beings; metta practice serves as an antidote to ill-will, wrath and fear.
Vipassanā meditation
See also: Vipassanā
Vipassanā is the ability to see everything as is. "Vi" in pali means great or beyond, while "passanā" means to see. Vipassanā then is concerned with seeing through the veil of ignorance (Pāli: Avijjā) and so, is unique to Buddhism. It can be aided by a practised mind (with samatha) but samatha is not necessary to practice vipassanā. Chiefly, vipassanā is involved in breaking the ten Fetters that bind one to the ever-iterating cycle of birth and death i.e. samsara. Some teachers do not distinguish between the two methods, rather prescribing meditation methods that develop both concentration and insight.
Attainment
Path and fruit
Practice leads to mundane and supramundane wisdom, leading to Nirvana:
The term "supramundane" [[[lokuttara]]] applies exclusively to that which transcends the world, that is the nine supramundane states: Nibbana, the four noble paths (magga) leading to Nibbana, and their corresponding fruits (phala) which experience the bliss of Nibbana.
Mundane wisdom is the insight in the three marks of existence. The development of this insight leads to four supramundane paths and fruits:
Each path is a momentary peak experience directly apprehending Nibbana and permanently cutting off certain defilements.
Each path is followed by its supramundane fruit:
whereas the path performs the active function of cutting off defilements, fruition simply enjoys the bliss and peace that result when the path has completed its task. Also, where the path is limited to a single moment of consciousness, the fruition that follows immediately on the path endures for two or three moments. And while each of the four paths occurs only once and can never be repeated, fruition remains accessible to the noble disciple.
Levels of attainment
See also: Four stages of enlightenment
Four levels of supramundane wisdom can be attained:
- Stream-Enterers: Those who have destroyed the first three fetters (false view of Self, doubt, and clinging to rites and rituals);
- Once-Returners: Those who have destroyed the first three fetters and have lessened the fetters of lust and hatred;
- Non-Returners: Those who have destroyed the five lower fetters, which bind beings to the world of the senses;
- Arahants: Those who have reached Enlightenment—realized Nirvana, and have reached the quality of deathlessness—are free from all the fermentations of defilement. Their ignorance, craving and attachments have ended.
Nirvana
Nirvana (Sanskrit: निर्वाण, Nirvāṇa; Pali: निब्बान, Nibbāna; Thai: นิพพาน, Nípphaan) is the ultimate goal of Theravadins. It is a state where the fire of the passions has been 'blown out', and the person is liberated from the repeated cycle of birth, illness, aging and death.
According to the early scriptures, the Nirvana attained by Arahants is identical to that attained by the Buddha himself, as there is only one type of Nirvana. Buddha was superior to Arahants because the Buddha had discovered the path all by himself, and has taught it to others (i,e., metaphorically turning the wheel of Dhamma).
Arahants, on the other hand, attained Nirvana due in part to the Buddha's teachings. Theravadins revere the Buddha as a single supremely gifted person but do recognize the existence of other such Buddhas in the distant past and future. Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya), for example, is mentioned very briefly in the Pali Canon as a Buddha who will come in the distant future.
Scriptures
Pali Canon
See also: Pali Canon
The Theravada school upholds the Pali Canon or Tipitaka as the most authoritative collection of texts on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. The Sutta and Vinaya portion of the Tipitaka shows considerable overlap in content to the Agamas, the parallel collections used by non-Theravada schools in India which are preserved in Chinese and partially in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Tibetan, and the various non-Theravada Vinayas. On this basis, both these sets of texts are generally believed to be the oldest and most authoritative texts on Buddhism by scholars.
It is also believed that much of the Pali Canon, which is still used by Theravāda communities, was transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign of Asoka. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom in those days for religious texts) for some centuries, were finally committed to writing in the last century BC, at what the Theravada usually reckons as the fourth council, in Sri Lanka. Theravada is one of the first Buddhist schools to commit the whole complete set of its Buddhist canon into writing.
Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically "Theravadan," but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early, non-sectarian body of teachings. According to Peter Harvey:
The Theravadans, then, may have added texts to the Canon for some time, but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period.
The Pali Tipitaka consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a later addition to the first two pitakas, which, in the opinion of many scholars, were the only two pitakas at the time of the First Buddhist Council. The Pali Abhidhamma was not recognized outside the Theravada school.
The Tipitaka is composed of 45 volumes in the Thai edition, 40 in the Burmese and 58 in the Sinhalese, and a full set of the Tipitaka is usually kept in its own (medium-sized) cupboard.
Commentaries
In the 4th or 5th century Buddhaghosa Thera wrote the first Pali commentaries to much of the Tipitaka (which were based on much older manuscripts, mostly in old Sinhalese). After him many other monks wrote various commentaries, which have become part of the Theravada heritage. These texts do not have the same authority as the Tipitaka does, though Buddhaghosas Visudhimaggha is a cornerstone of the commentarial tradition.
The commentaries, together with the Abhidhamma, define the specific Theravada heritage. Related versions of the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were common to all the early Buddhist schools, and therefore do not define only Theravada, but also the other early Buddhist schools, and perhaps the teaching of Gautama Buddha himself.
Theravada Buddhists consider much of what is found in the Chinese and Tibetan Mahayana scriptural collections to be apocryphal, meaning that they are not authentic words of the Buddha.
Lay and monastic life
See also: Buddhist monasticism
Distinction between lay and monastic life
Traditionally, Theravada Buddhism has observed a distinction between the practices suitable for a lay person and the practices undertaken by ordained monks (in ancient times, there was a separate body of practices for nuns). While the possibility of significant attainment by laymen is not entirely disregarded by the Theravada, it generally occupies a position of less prominence than in the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, with monastic life being hailed as a superior method of achieving Nirvana. The view that Theravada, unlike other Buddhist schools, is primarily a monastic tradition has, however, been disputed.
This distinction between ordained monks and laypeople — as well as the distinction between those practices advocated by the Pali Canon, and the folk religious elements embraced by many monks — have motivated some scholars to consider Theravada Buddhism to be composed of multiple separate traditions, overlapping though still distinct.
Most prominently, the anthropologist Melford Spiro in his work Buddhism and Society separated Burmese Theravada into three groups: Apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evil spirits), Kammatic Buddhism (concerned with making merit for a future birth), and Nibbanic Buddhism (concerned with attaining the liberation of Nirvana, as described in the Tipitaka).
He stresses that all three are firmly rooted in the Pali Canon. These categories are not accepted by all scholars, and are usually considered non-exclusive by those who employ them.
The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activities that are commonly termed merit making (falling under Spiro's category of kammatic Buddhism). Merit making activities include offering food and other basic necessities to monks, making donations to temples and monasteries, burning incense or lighting candles before images of the Buddha, and chanting protective or merit-making verses from the Pali Canon. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take a more active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status.
Dedicated lay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, taking part in the financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteer significant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking, cleaning, maintaining temple facilities, etc.). Lay activities have traditionally not extended to study of the Pali scriptures, nor the practice of meditation, though in the 20th Century these areas have become more accessible to the lay community, especially in Thailand.
A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition, including Ajahn Buddhadasa, Luang Ta Maha Bua, Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo, Ajahn Pasanno, and Ajahn Jayasaro, have begun teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for lay disciples.
Ajahn Chah, a disciple of Ajahn Mun, set up a monastic lineage called Cittaviveka with his disciple Ajahn Sumedho, at Chithurst in West Sussex, England. Ajahn Sumedho later founded the Amaravati Buddhist Monastery in Hertfordshire, which has a retreat center specifically for lay retreats. Sumedho extended this to Harnham in Northumberland as Aruna Ratanagiri under the present guidance of Ajahn Munindo, another disciple of Ajahn Chah.
Scholar monks and rural monks
Nirvana, the highest goal of Theravada Buddhism, is attained through study and the practice of morality, meditation and wisdom (sila, samadhi, panna).
The goal of Nirvana (and its associated techniques) have traditionally been seen as the domain of the fully ordained monastic, whereas many of the same techniques can be used by laypeople to generate happiness in their lives, without focusing on Nirvana.
Monastic roles in the Theravada can be broadly described as being split between the role of the (often urban) scholar monk and the (often rural or forest) meditation monk. Both types of monks serve their communities as spiritual teachers and officiants by presiding over spiritual ceremonies and providing instruction in basic Buddhist morality and teachings.
Scholar monks undertake the path of studying and preserving the Pali literature of the Theravada. They may devote little time to the practice of meditation, but may attain great respect and renown by becoming masters of a particular section of the Pali Canon or its commentaries. Masters of the Abhidhamma, called Abhidhammika, are particularly respected in the scholastic tradition.
Meditation monks, often called forest monks because of their association with certain wilderness-dwelling traditions, are considered to be specialists in meditation. While some forest monks may undertake significant study of the Pali Canon, in general meditation monks are expected to learn primarily from their meditation experiences and personal teachers, and may not know more of the Tipitaka than is necessary to participate in liturgical life and to provide a foundation for fundamental Buddhist teachings.
More so than the scholastic tradition, the meditation tradition is associated with the attainment of certain supernatural powers described in both Pali sources and folk tradition. These powers include the attainment of Nirvana, mind-reading, supernatural power over material objects and their own material bodies, seeing and conversing with gods and beings living in hell, and remembering their past lives. These powers are called abhiñña. Sometimes the remain of the cremated bone fragment of an accomplished forest monk is believed able to transform itself into crystal-like relics (sārira-dhātu).
Ordination
The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years, reckoned from conception. However, boys under that age are allowed to ordain as novices (samanera), performing a ceremony such as Shinbyu in Burma.
Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow robes, and observe ten basic precepts. Although no specific minimum age for novices is mentioned in the scriptures, traditionally boys as young as seven are accepted. This tradition follows the story of the Lord Buddha’s son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the age of seven. Monks follow 227 rules of discipline, while nuns follow 311 rules.
In most Theravada countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordain as monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Burma, young men typically ordain for the 3 month Rain Retreat (vassa), though shorter or longer periods of ordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even more flexible among Laotians.
Once they had undergone their initial ordination as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time, though married men were expected to seek their wife's permission. Throughout Southeast Asia, there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Monks regularly leave the robes after acquiring an education, or when compelled by family obligations or ill health.
Ordaining as a monk, even for a short period, is seen as having many virtues. In many Southeast Asian cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to "repay" his parents for their work and effort in raising him, because the merit from his ordination accrues to them as well. Thai men who have ordained as a monk may be seen as more fit husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who have served as monks with a colloquial term meaning "ripe" to indicate that they are more mature and ready for marriage. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordination of boys and young men traditionally gave peasant boys an opportunity to gain an education in temple schools without committing to a permanent monastic life.
In Sri Lanka, temporary ordination is not practiced, and a monk leaving the order is frowned upon. The continuing influence of the caste system in Sri Lanka may play a role in the taboo against temporary ordination and leaving the monkhood.
Though Sri Lankan monastic nikayas are often organized along caste lines, men who ordain as monks temporarily pass outside of the conventional caste system, and as such during their time as monks may act (or be treated) in a way that would not be in line with the expected duties and privileges of their caste.
Men and women born in western countries, who become Buddhists as adults, wish to become monks or nuns.
It is possible, and one can live as a monk or nun in the country they were born in, seek monks or nuns which has gathered in a different western country or move to a monastery in countries like Sri Lanka or Thailand. It is seen as being easier to live a life as a monk or nun in countries where people generally live by the culture of Buddhism, since it is difficult to live by the rules of a monk or a nun in a western country.
For instance; a Theravada monk or nun is not allowed to work, handle money, listen to music, cook and so on, which are extremely difficult rules to live by in cultures which do not embrace Buddhism. The recommendation is usually that to be able to live fully as a monk or nun you should move to a monastery in a country with a culture that embraces Theravada Buddhism.
Some of the more well-known Theravadan monks are: Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta, Ajahn Chah, Ledi Sayadaw, Ajahn Plien Panyapatipo, Ajahn Sumedho, Ajahn Brahm, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Buddhadasa, Mahasi Sayadaw, Nyanaponika Thera, Preah Maha Ghosananda, Sayadaw U Pandita, Ajahn Amaro, Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Walpola Rahula, Bhante Henepola Gunaratana, and Bhante Yogavacara Rahula.
Monastic practices
The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and monasteries within Theravada.
But in the most orthodox forest monastery, the monk usually models his practice and lifestyle on that of the Buddha and his first generation of disciples by living close to nature in forest, mountains and caves. Forest monasteries still keep alive the ancient traditions through following the Buddhist monastic code of discipline in all its detail and developing meditation in secluded forests.
In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3 month vassa period, the monk will wake up before dawn and will begin the day with group chanting and meditation. At dawn the monks will go out to surrounding villages bare-footed on alms-round and will have the only meal of the day before noon by eating from the bowl by hand. Most of the time is spent on Dhamma study and meditation.
Sometimes the abbot or a senior monk will give a Dhamma talk to the visitors. Laity who stay at the monastery will have to abide by the traditional eight Buddhist precepts.
The life of the monk or nun in a community is much more complex than the life of the forest monk. In the Buddhist society of Sri Lanka, most monks spend hours every day in taking care of the needs of lay people such as preaching bana, accepting alms, officiating funerals, teaching dhamma to adults and children in addition to providing social services to the community.
After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away from the monastery to find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hang their umbrella tents and where it is suitable for the work of self-development.
When they go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go wherever they feel inclined. Only those requisites which are necessary will be carried along. These generally consist of the bowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a kettle of water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern.
The monks do not fix their times for walking and sitting meditation, for as soon as they are free they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long they will go on to meditate. Some of them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereas at other times they may walk from between two to seven hours. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious animals live in order to aid their meditation.
Those monks who have been able to achieve a high level of attainment will be able to guide the junior monks and lay Buddhists toward the four degrees of spiritual attainment.
Lay devotee
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In Pali the word for a male lay devotee is Upasaka. Upasika is its female equivalent.
One of the duties of the lay followers, as taught by the Buddha, is to look after the needs of the monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do not suffer from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and medicine.
As neither monks nor nuns are allowed to have an occupation, they depend entirely on the laity for their sustenance. In return for this charity, they are expected to lead exemplary lives.
In Burma and Thailand, the monastery was and is still regarded as a seat of learning. In fact today about half of the primary schools in Thailand are located in monasteries. Religious rituals and ceremonies held in a monastery are always accompanied by social activities. In times of crisis, it is to the monks that people bring their problems for counsel.
Traditionally, a ranking monk will deliver a sermon four times a month: when the moon waxes and wanes and the day before the new and full moons. The laity also have a chance to learn meditation from the monks during these times.
It is also possible for a lay disciple to become enlightened. As Bhikkhu Bodhi notes, "The Suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana. However, such disciples either attain Arahantship on the brink of death or enter the monastic order soon after their attainment. They do not continue to dwell at home as Arahant householders, for dwelling at home is incompatible with the state of one who has severed all craving.
Monastic orders within Theravada
Theravada monks typically belong to a particular nikaya, variously referred to as monastic orders or fraternities. These different orders do not typically develop separate doctrines, but may differ in the manner in which they observe monastic rules. These monastic orders represent lineages of ordination, typically tracing their origin to a particular group of monks that established a new ordination tradition within a particular country or geographic area.
In Sri Lanka caste plays a major role in the division into nikayas. Some Theravada Buddhist countries appoint or elect a sangharaja, or Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, as the highest ranking or senior most monk in a particular area, or from a particular nikaya.
The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some countries, but patriarchs have continued to be appointed in Thailand. Burma and Cambodia ended the practice of appointing a sangharaja for some time, but the position was later restored, though in Cambodia it lapsed again.
- Bangladesh:
- Burma (Myanmar):
- Sri Lanka:
- Siam Nikaya
- Amarapura Nikaya has many Sub orders including
- Dharmarakshitha
- Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya)
- Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa)
- Ramañña Nikaya
- Thailand and Cambodia