The “Twenty or Eighteen” Texts of the Mind Series: Scripture, Transmission, and the Idea of Canon in the Early Great Perfection Literature

The “Twenty or Eighteen” Texts of the Mind Series:

Scripture, Transmission, and the Idea of Canon in the Early Great Perfection Literature

Manuel Lopez (New College of Florida)

“Regarding the harmonious Dharma, [the books that you should take with you to a retreat are]: Kamalaśīla [’s Bhāvanākrama], [[[Hashang]]] Mahāyāna’s texts on contemplation, those of the profound Inner Yoga; the Klong drug, the bZhi phrugs, the Six Tantras of Suchness, and the twenty or eighteen minor [texts of the] Mind”

gNubs chen’s 9th century The Lamp for the Eye in Meditation

“Considerable confusion reigns over this list among the rNying ma pa works. Each claims to have eighteen, but often gives only sixteen or seventeen [...] The titles also vary from one source to another.”

Samten Karmay’s 1988 The Great Perfection

Introduction1

Buddhism and of its early literature have been a disputed he historical origins of the Great Perfection of Tibetan topic since the tradition emerged on the Tibetan Plateau in the 9th century. There seems to be an agreement among scholars that the collection of texts known as the Eighteen Texts of the Mind Series (Sems sde bco rgyad)2 is the earliest known corpus of Great Perfection literature, but as the two quotes, separated by a thousand years, introducing this article also reflect, there is a great deal of confusion about the actual contents of the collection, including if the numbers of texts within it were actually eighteen. The goal of this paper is to

The research for this paper benefited from my participation in the Sems sde Project at the University of Virginia during my years as a graduate student. Led by Prof. David Germano and by Kurtis Schaeffer, and with the collaboration of then graduate student Dominic Sur, the project had as its goal to “sort out intertextuality among early Tibetan Great Perfection literature in an attempt to reconstruct the growth and development of this literature.” I want to thank them for sparking my interest in this literature as well as for their insights and help during the writing of this article. Prof. Germano’s research on the early Great Perfection literature, particularly his analysis of the Mind Series literature, and the Eighteen Texts in particular, in his unpublished manuscript Mysticism and Rhetoric in the Great Perfection has been invaluable. This article would not have been possible without it. 2 I will refer to this collection as the Eighteen Texts from now on.

Manuel Lopez, “The “Twenty or Eighteen” Texts of the Mind Series: Scripture, Transmission, and the Idea of Canon in the Early Great Perfection Literature”, Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines, no. 43, January 2018, pp. 50–94.

explore the transmission history of this literature from its very early reference as a corpus in gNubs chen’s 9th century The Lamp for the Eye in Meditation, its reception in the 11th and 12th century by figures such as Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po, Rog ban Shes rab ‘od, and Nyang ral Nyi ma ‘od zer, the role of the collection in the Bai ro’i rgyud ’bum, its decline in the 13th century as reflected in both lDe’u histories and the incorporation of the texts as chapters of a larger tantra, the All Sovereign King (Kun byed rgyal po) and, finally, its reception in the 14th century by the great rNying ma scholar Klong chen pa in order to clarify the nature and actual contents of this collection of texts. As this paper outlines, the many lists of the Eighteen Texts that emerged between the 9th and the 14th century differ in their contents, there is no canonical collection of texts within the rNying ma tradition that includes all of the eighteen texts, and even texts with the same title can be remarkably different from one edition to the other, to the point that the only thing they have in common is their title and, as Karen Liljenberg has pointed out in her work, some of the texts of the collection may have disappeared in the rNying ma canon under new names. The main argument of this article is that there never was an actual collection of eighteen texts, and that following David Gray’s idea of the Tantric Canon as an idea, the name of this collection of texts had more symbolic than descriptive value, allowing the early Great Perfection tradition to define its early literature and practices within the confines of what was expected of all Buddhist traditions, mainly having a set of scriptures and a legitimate lineage of transmission.

The Origins of the Great Perfection in Tibet and the Emergence of its Early Literature

According to traditional Tibetan narratives within rNying ma literature, the Great Perfection tradition (Tib. rDzogs chen; Skt. Atiyoga), considered “the realization of all the Buddhas of the three times […], the essence of all the doctrines, the summit of all vehicles, the king of all tantras, the main point of all scriptures, [and] the root of all instructions,”8 was revealed for the first time by the Primordial Buddha Samantabhadra (Kun tu bzang po) to Vajrasattva (rDo rje sems dpa’), who, in turn, transmitted the teachings to the master from Oḍḍiyāna dGa' rab rdo rje. He was the first human to receive the teachings, and transmitted them to Śrī Siṃha (Shri sing ha), who would then teach them to the Tibetan translators Bai ro tsa na and Legs grub, who had been sent to India by the Tibetan Emperor Khri srong lde btsan as part of the Imperial project of bringing Buddhism to Tibet in the 8th century. Legs grub died on his way back to Tibet, but Bai ro tsa na was able to receive the transmission of the essential scriptures of the early Great Perfection tradition, The Eighteen Texts of the Mind Series (Sems sde bco brgyad). In his return to Tibet, he translated five of the Eighteen Texts, in what would be known as the Five Early Translations (sNga ‘gyur lnga), and Vimalamitra (Dri med bshes gnyen) translated the rest, known as the Thirteen Later Translations (Phyi ‘gyur bcu gsum). As the Great Perfection evolved and new scriptures and practices emerged, the tradition divided article. More recent accounts can be found in Dudjom Rinpoche’s The Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism. Among contemporary Tibetan scholars, Namkhai Norbu, in The Supreme Source, for example, offers a slightly different account, placing more emphasis on the pre-Buddhist, Zhang zhung roots of the Great Perfection. 8 This is the narrative as found in The Mask of Bai ro tsa na (Bai ro 'dra 'bag), one of the earliest accounts of the transmission of the Great Perfection teachings into Tibet. See Palmo 2005:5.

them into a set of three distinctive classes of teachings: the Mind Series (sems sde), which would include the early translations by Bai ro tsa na and Vimalamitra, as well as a myriad of other texts that would focus on the nature of the mind; the Space Series (klong sde), which were never very popular within the Great Perfection tradition; and the Secret Instructions Series (man ngag sde), which by the 11th century started gaining popularity, and by the 18th century was the most popular form of Great Perfection practice. The early Great Perfection literature, as represented by the Eighteen Texts, reflects a tradition that focuses on the nature of the mind, is gnostic in nature, gives primacy to spontaneity over structure, values innate, primordial wisdom, and promotes a complete rejection, at least rhetorically, of practice that guides the practitioner not through a gradual set of contemplative practices, but through poetic, inspirational instructions that helps the practitioner recontextualize his/her understanding of the nature of self and reality. This is reflected in the earliest witnesses of this literature, as found in Dunhuang manuscripts such as the Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa’i khu byug). In Germano’s description the emergence of a distinctive intellectual and textual tradition was a gradual process that was deeply rooted in a unique Tibetan understanding of Mahāyoga philosophy and contemplative practice. This process included the redaction of “an initial set of eighteen short texts in selfconscious mirroring of the canonical Eighteen Tantras of the Great Yoga, thus producing the first scriptural canon of the Great Perfection.” Originally, these texts were short, and lacked the traditional framework of other Buddhist tantras or a detailed description of contemplative practices.

As the Great Perfection literature grew and new systems emerged competing for patronage and followers, the most important texts of the Mind Series, the Eighteen Texts included, were collected, beginning in the 13th century, as chapters of what would become the most important tantra of the Mind Series tradition, the All Sovereign King (Kun byed rgyal po), which transformed a poetic and scattered literature collection into a cohesive and traditional tantric scripture, including a more standard Buddhist narrative of origins and transmission of the teachings. While this narrative is widely accepted within the rNying ma tradition, the historical origins of the Great Perfection and of its early literature, though, have been a disputed and contested topic since the tradition emerged on the Tibetan plateau in the 8th century. In the 9th century the Great Perfection scholar gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes had to defend the tradition of the attacks claiming it to be a mere Tibetan copy of Chinese Chan.15 In the 11th century Lha bla ma Ye shes ’od, 959–1040 CE),16 as part of his project to reform Buddhist practices in Tibet after the collapse of the Tibetan Empire in the 9th century,17 attacked “the false doctrine of Dzogchen.”18 The Great Perfection in general, and gNubs chen in particular, will continue to be attacked in the 11th century by Ye shes ’od’s nephew, Pho brang Zhi ba 'od, 1016–1111 CE),19 who dismissed gNubs chen’s seminal work, the Lamp for the Eye in Meditation, as well as gNubs chen’s commentaries on the Mind Series scriptures, like the Rig pa’i nyi ma (a commentary on the Nam mkha’ che), as part of an attempt to create scriptures “composed in the guise of the word of the Buddha [while claiming] to be of Indian origin,” but which, in fact, were “produced by Tibetans,” and therefore “one can hardly accept them […] since they may be the path leading into evil rebirths.”20 Even

rejection of practice of any type, as well as by their rejection of funerary Buddhism,” p. 246. 15 gNubs chen acknowledges the similarities, particular in terms of rhetoric and their mutual rejection of any sort of practice, but he also stresses their differences. 16 For more on this figure, see the following Karmay (1998: 3-16), Karmay 2013, and Thakur 1994. 17 This project culminated with the invitation and subsequent arrival of Atīśa (Atīśa Dīpaṃkara Śrijñāna, 980-1054 CE) to Tibet in 1040. On the topic of Atīśa, see Chattopadhyaya 1988, Decleer 1997, and Ruegg 1981. 18 See Karmay 1998: 10. 19 See Karmay 1998: 17-40. 20 See Karmay 1998: 31, 37-38. The 11th century scholar, ’Gos Khug pa lhas btsas, in his Refutation of False Mantra (sNgags log sun ’byin gyi skor), also accuses gNubs chen of composing tantras in Tibet while claiming to be of Indian origin. Dalton translates this relevant passage from ’Gos Khug pa lhas btsas attacking gNubs chen: “Because of Nup Sangyé Rinchen, sources appeared in India. Some really Sakya Paṇḍita in the 13th century referred to the Great Perfection as being influenced by Chinese Chan:

In the Mahāmudrā of today and in the Rdzogs-chen of the Chinese fashion, “fall from above” and “climb from below” [on the one hand] and “successively” and “simultaneously” [on the other] are only terminological variants. Where meaning is concerned, no distinction is made between them.21

Modern scholarship on this subject began in earnest with the publication in 1988 of Samten Karmay’s The Great Perfection, which argued for a more complex understanding of the origins of the tradition. According to Karmay, the early Great Perfection included “certain elements of the cig car ba [[[Chan]]] tradition, the sems sde type of teachings, and predominantly tantric doctrines expounded in Tantras such as [the Guhyagarbha].”22 With this work, Karmay acknowledged the syncretic nature of the tradition not as a weakness or as a proof of its lack of pedigree, but as a sign of the strength and creativity by which Tibetans absorbed, transformed, and reinterpreted the various forms of Buddhism that had made their way into Tibet since the 7th century.23 In the following decades David Germano continued Karmay’s line of enquiry and explored the emergence of the Great Perfection tradition as a uniquely Tibetan innovation grounded in certain Indian Buddhist developments centered around the Guhyagarbha (rGyud gsang ba'i snying po) in the Mahāyoga tradition.24 Dalton and van Schaik also brought some light

astonishing teachings were composed. The five and the eighteen mantrateachings, as well as The Great Mental Arising, are all false and corrupt teachings made up by Tibetans… Also made up by Sangyé Rinpoché are [The Tantra of] The Peaceful and Wrathful Deities, the greater and lesser Planet Tantras of the Rahula Cycle, [The Tantra of] The Ice-Faced One, and so forth.” Bold is mine. See Dalton 2011: 8. 21 Sa skya pan chen, Sdom gsum rab dbye, fol. 25b, Sa skya bka’ ‘bum ed. (Tokyo, 1968), 5:309, quoted from Stein, R.A. "Sudden Illumination or Simultaneous Comprehension." In Gregory 1987:44. 22 See Karmay 1988: 212. 23 For his analysis on the emergence of the Great Perfection, Karmay focuses on the Man ngag lta ba’i phreng ba, a commentary on the perfection phase practices as are described in the Guhyagarbha. In his opinion, “[b]eing the principal work dealing with the final stage of the process of the rdzogs rim meditation expounded in SNy, it is the original source that gave birth to what is known as the doctrine of rDzogs chen, a syncretic teaching mainly drawn from SNy and tinged with thoughts originating the Sems sde.” In Karmay 1988: 152. He dedicates the greater part of chapter six to that issue. 24 See Germano 1994.

to the early stages of development of the Great Perfection tradition and its literature through their study of the Dunhuang manuscripts, and have also offered a more nuanced hermeneutical approach to our understanding of the origins of the tradition. The work of Karen Liljenberg, particularly her findings of some of the lost scriptures belonging to the Eighteen Texts, reveal the way in which some of these texts disappeared under new titles, hiding in plain sight, or were incorporated as parts of larger texts during the process of creation of the various rNying ma canons in the 14th century. The recent work of scholars such as Cabezón and his translation of Rog ban Shes rab ‘od’s Lamp of the Teachings (Grub mtha' so so'i bzhed tshul gzhung gsal bar ston pa chos 'byung grub mtha' chen po bstan pa'i sgron me), and

Sur, with his translation of Rong zom’s Disclosing the Great Vehicle Approach (Theg chen tshul ‘jug), have also been invaluable to our understanding of the early reception and interpretation of the early Great Perfection literature in the context of the emergence of the gSar ma traditions in a post-Imperial Tibet. While the existence and importance of the Eighteen Texts has never been disputed by traditional rNying ma and modern Tibetan scholars alike, the nature and content of this collection have been a recurring and puzzling question. As we will see, there is no agreement as to the actual contents of the collection or even the actual number of texts that compose it. This problem is compounded by the fact that an actual complete collection of the Eighteen Texts cannot be found in any of the various versions of the Collection of the Ancients (rNying ma’i rgyud ‘bum) in existence. This raises a variety of questions: Why are there so many different lists of them containing different titles? Why are scholars such as Klong chen pa offering different lists of the Eighteen Texts within the same work? Were there different canons circulating around under the same name? And where are those texts? The purpose of this article is to try to offer some answers to these questions through a careful study of the reception history of this collection from its first mention in gNubs chen’s 9th century Lamp for the Eye in Meditation, until the references to it by Klong chen pa in the 14th century, a time where its relevance had faded in favor of other textual and contemplative traditions within the Great Perfection tradition. As I have already pointed out, my assessment of the various lists of texts points toward the fact that an actual fixed collection of eighteen texts never really existed, and the label of “eighteen” did not operate as a concrete textual reality, but as an ideal canon that helped the early Great Perfection define itself as different and unique from other Buddhist traditions.

The Eighteen Texts (or is it Twenty?) in the 9th Century: gNubs chen’s Lamp for the Eye in Meditation

The oldest recorded reference to the existence of the Eighteen Texts as a collection can be found in the 9th century text The Lamp for the Eye in Meditation (bSam gtan mig sgron), a treatise written by the Tibetan scholar gNubs chen Sangs rgyas ye she. The Lamp is a remarkable text for many reasons, but for the argument that I want to make in this paper, it is important since it is the earliest and the most comprehensive treatise describing the emergence during this period of the Great Perfection (rdzogs chen) as an independent vehicle (theg pa), different and superior to those imported from India and China. The Lamp is a doxography or a classification of views that organizes the various forms of Buddhism that made their way into  

Tibet during gNubs chen’s time into four basic approaches to meditation: Gradual approach (tsen men rim gyis ‘jug pa), which describes the traditional Mahāyāna textual and scholastic tradition coming mainly from India; Instantaneous approach (ston mun cig car ‘jug pa), represented by Chinese Chan; Mahāyoga (rnal ‘byor pa chen po), a tradition that represented the new tantric developments that had become popular during this period all across Asia, starting in the 7th-8th century; and Atiyoga (rdzogs pa chen po), which can be seen to a great extent as a unique continuation of some meditational experiences of the Mahāyoga tradition, as well as a rejection of its rhetoric, and in particular of its sexual and wrathful practices.

In the Lamp, gNubs chen uses the doxographical genre not only to passively organize the various forms of Buddhism that were being imported into Tibet, but also to actively and creatively engage in the construction of a unique Tibetan Buddhist view, with the Gradual Approach at the bottom of the contemplative path, and Atiyoga or the Great Perfection at the top. In the chapters dedicated to each of the traditions, gNubs chen systematically outlines the philosophical view of each tradition (lta ba), their contemplative practices (sgom pa), their ethical guidelines (spyod pa), and the final goal of their practices (‘bras bu). But gNubs chen does not only articulate the views of each tradition through their philosophy and practices, but also defines the boundaries that separates them by outlining their distinctive lineages of teachers, as well as their very unique corpus of scriptures.

As I said, the Lamp has the oldest reference to the Eighteen Texts identified as a separate corpus of scriptures uniquely connected to the Great Perfection. The actual passage, in fact, makes a reference to all of the important scriptures that a meditator should take to a retreat in order to practice the contemplative techniques of each of the four traditions outlined in the Lamp:

“Regarding the harmonious Dharma [[[books]] that you should take with you to a retreat]: Kamalaśīla [’s Bhāvanākrama], [[[Hashang]]] Mahāyāna’s texts on contemplation, those of the profound Inner Yoga; the Klong drug,35 the bZhi phrugs (whose commentary is like the primordial meaning), the Six Tantras of Suchness, and the twenty or eighteen minor [texts of the] Mind”

The page from gNubs chen’s Lamp for the Eye in Meditation with the first recorded mention to the Eighteen Texts

This text could be the Kun tu bzang po Klong drug pa’i rgyud attributed to Vimalamitra, but, as Karmay pointed out, since the text is not actually quoted in the Lamp, “there is no means of verifying it.” He then adds, “Klong-chen rab’byams uses it as one of the fundamental sources in his works, e.g. Theg mchog mdzod, ff. 190a5, 300a3 et passim; Tshig don mdzod ff. 4b2, 5b2, 6b3 et passim” in Karmay 2007: 97 n. 69. van Schaik, though, thinks that this text may be quoted in the Lamp under a slightly different name: “This is perhaps a commentary to the mTsho Klong (Byang chub kyi sems rgya mtsho Klong dgu'i rgyud, Tb.69), which is cited twice in the Atiyoga chapter. There is a commentary on the Klong drug rgyud attributed to Vimalamitra in the bKa' ma shin tu rgyas pa (vol.100) but as the root text is one of the Seminal Heart tantras which were not in circulation until the eleventh century at the earliest, this is most unlikely to be the text referred to here,” in van Schaik 2004: 196.

Several things make this quote important in the context of our study of the history of the Eighteen Texts. First, this is the only explicit reference to the Eighteen Texts as a literary corpus in the whole treatise. gNubs chen will quote extensively from this collection, particularly in the chapter dedicated to the Great Perfection tradition, but he will not refer to them as a group again. Second, gNubs chen’s reference is surprisingly vague. Are there eighteen or twenty texts? Does he not know? Are there different opinions on this matter? gNubs chen does not offer a list of the texts that comprise this corpus, but a survey of the Lamp comparing gNubs chen’s citations with later lists of the Eighteen Texts shows that most of the texts considered by the later tradition to be a part of the collection are included in it, although the list veers towards twenty more than eighteen, and some of the texts that ended up not making it in the list, like The Small Hidden Grain (rGum chung) and The Universally Definitive Perfection (rDzogs pa spyi spyod), are actually quoted more times than some of the established texts like The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa’i khu byug). Here are the texts cited by gNubs chen, listed for comparative purposes following the later standard division between the Five Early Translations (1-5) and the Thirteen Later ones (6-18), plus an additional two texts that make this early corpus one of twenty texts:

1. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa’i khu byug, here as Khu byug) 2. Great Potency (rTsal chen sprugs pa, here as bTsal chen sprugs pa) 3. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba, here as Khyung chen) 4. Meditation on the Enlightened Mind (Byang chub sems bsgom pa, here as Sems bsgom, as well as its alternative title of rDo la gser zhun) 5. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Mi nub rgyal mtshan, here as Nam mkha' che)

6. The Supreme Lord (rJe btsan dam pa) 7. The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Yid bzhin nor bu) 8. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (rTse mo byung rgyal) 9. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (bDe ba 'phra bkod) 10. The King of the Sky (Nam mkha' rgyal po) 11. The Wheel of Life (Srog gi 'khor lo) 12. The Epitome (sPyi ‘chings, here as sPyi chings and sPhyi bcangs) 13. The Infinity of Bliss (bDe 'byams) 14. The Quintessential King (Yang tig rgyal po or Mi 'gyur thig le tig or Byang chub sems tig) 15. The Marvelous (rMad du byung ba) 16. The Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa) 17. The Accomplishment of Meditation (bsGom don grub pa, here as don grub) 18. The Compendium (Kun 'dus, here as Rin po che kun 'dus rig pa)

19. The Universally Definitive Perfection (rDzogs pa spyi spyod, here as sPhyi bcod) 20. The Small Hidden Grain (sBas pa’i rgum chung)

The fact that gNubs chen seems unsure as to the number of texts that are part of this collection points, I would argue, not to some sort of confusion on his part, but to the fact that the Great Perfection tradition is, at the time of gNubs chen, in its very early stages, with a nascent and fluid sets of ideas, practices, and scriptures. This nascent nature of the tradition as well as its scriptural corpus would also explain why gNubs chen refers to it as sems phran or minor texts of the mind, instead of sems sde or Mind Series. The concept of a “Mind Series” would only make sense in the context of the triad of Mind Series (ems sde), Space Series (klong sde) and the Secret Instruction Series (man ngag sde) traditions that was created later to classify and organize the various teachings and lineages that were within the Great Perfection and that at the time of the Lamp either were not well established to merit a reference to them, or, as I believe, had not yet emerged. Finally, gNubs chen does not divide the corpus into the later accepted division between the Five Earlier Translations by Bai ro tsa na, and the Thirteen Later Translations by Vimalamitra. Despite all of these issues, there is no doubt that gNubs chen relies heavily on this early corpus of literature in his depiction of the Great Perfection as a separate Buddhist vehicle. gNubs chen is using the early corpus of the Eighteen Texts to separate the Great Perfection from the other vehicles, showing that their particular philosophical vision is preserved in a different literary corpus, with a different lineage of transmission. gNubs chen uses these texts, with their particular denial of tantric rhetoric and practice, its poetic bent, its deconstructive approach to discourse, its emphasis on spontaneity and naturalness (what David Germano has called “Pristine Tantra”) to articulate a different approach to Buddhist thought and to those of the other Buddhist vehicles discussed in the Lamp.

The Eighteen Texts in gNubs chen’s Lamp for the Eye in Meditation

Title Number of quotes

1. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa’i khu byug, here as Khu byug) 2 2. Great Potency (rTsal chen sprugs pa, here as bTsal chen sprugs pa) 3 3. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba, here as Khyung chen) 19 4. Meditation on the Enlightened Mind (Byang chub sems bsgom pa, here as Sems bsgom, as well as its alternative title of rDo la gser zhun) 11 5. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Mi nub rgyal mtshan, here as Nam mkha' che) 37 6. The Supreme Lord (rJe btsan dam pa) 2 7. The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Yid bzhin nor bu) 1

Renaissance period for the composition of the interlinear notes. Carmen Meinert (2004: 238 n. 599), and Esler (2012: 129) have offered other convincing historical and grammatical arguments that seem to confirm Karmay’s early suspicions regarding the authorship of the notes, attributing them to close disciples, or to the later Tibetan tradition. I agree with the prevalent assessment of the interlinear notes being written not by gNubs chen, but by some close disciples or early custodians of gNubs chen’s tradition (probably, early members of the Zur tradition).

8. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (rTse mo byung rgyal) 19 9. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (bDe ba 'phra bkod) 7 10. The King of the Sky (Nam mkha' rgyal po) 12 11. The Wheel of Life (Srog gi 'khor lo) 5 12. The Epitome (sPyi ‘chings, here as sPyi chings and sPhyi bcangs) 3 13. The Infinity of Bliss (bDe 'byams) 6 14. The Quintessential King (Yang tig rgyal po or Mi 'gyur thig le tig or Byang chub sems tig) 1 15. The Marvelous (rMad du byung ba) 43 16. The Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa) 3 17. The Accomplishment of Meditation (bsGom don grub pa, here as don grub) 2 18. The Compendium (Kun 'dus, here as Rin po che kun 'dus rig pa) 15 19. The Universally Definitive Perfection (rDzogs pa spyi spyod, here as sPhyi bcod) 3 20. The Small Hidden Grain (sBas pa’i rgum chung) 5

To conclude this section, though, I think it is also worth mentioning another clue that points toward the emergent nature of the Great Perfection as a separate vehicle at the time of gNubs chen’s Lamp. While the Eighteen Texts play a key role in the articulation of the Great Perfection philosophical view, none of the texts in the corpus is the most mentioned text in the Lamp, nor even in the chapter dedicated to the Great Perfection. In particular, this honor goes to the Sūtra of the Gathered Intentions (dGongs pa ‘dus pa’i mdo), which is mentioned ninety-nine times. The most mentioned Mind Series text in the Lamp is the Marvelous (rMad du byung ba), which is quoted forty-three times. In chapter seven, which is dedicated to the Great Perfection, the Marvelous is quoted forty-one times, still, the Sūtra of the Gathered Intentions is quoted forty-five times, and the quotations are much longer. Why would that be? There may be several reasons, but, as I have said, I believe that the Lamp presents a Great Perfection tradition in its very early stages, and while the early Mind Series literature helps gNubs chen express a unique vision for the tradition, the texts also lack the philosophical sophistication to articulate and argue its own positions against those of other Buddhist traditions with more historical pedigree (we could say that the rhetoric of denial can only get you so far in an argument!). That’s why gNubs chen repeatedly uses tantric material, in this case the Sūtra of the Gathered Intentions (dGongs pa 'dus pa’i mdo), which helps him make his case for the Great Perfection as a separate vehicle.

The Eighteen Texts in the 11th and 12th Centuries: Rong zom, Rog ban, and Nyang ral

gNubs chen’s 9th century Lamp for the Eye in Meditation reflects, as we have seen, the Great Perfection as well as the collection of texts that became known as the Eighteen Texts of the Mind Series literature in its very early stages. The corpus of texts is still not defined in its number (“twenty or eighteen”), nor in its specific content, since the Lamp does not offer an actual list. It seems that at the time of gNubs chen’s writing, the Mind Series literature is vaguely defined but relatively cohesive in tone and content, and its various texts are still fairly independent of each other since gNubs chen cites them as separate texts throughout the Lamp. Over the next four centuries we will see a general consensus by rNying ma scholars about the existence of an early canon of Great Perfection texts under the label of the Eighteen Texts, but, as we will see, there will be a complete lack of agreement about its actual composition. A brief analysis of the references to this corpus of scriptures by three different rNying ma scholars who lived in the 11th and 12th centuries, Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po, Rog ban Shes rab ‘od, and Nyang ral Nyi ma 'od zer, will allow us to explore a period in the reception history of the Mind Series literature in which its scriptures are in an intermediate or transitional period between their circulation as independent texts, and their transformation in the late 12th–early 13th century as chapters of The All Sovereign King (Kun byed rgyal po), a scripture that will incorporate the Eighteen Texts as part of a new and larger textual tradition that will also incorporate new scriptures and practices within an evolving Great Perfection tradition that was also competing at the time with the New Translation movements that started to develop in Tibet in the postDark Age period. Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po’s Disclosing the Great Vehicle Approach

After gNubs chen, the most important figure in the transmission of the early Great Perfection literature is the great 11th century scholar Rong zom Chos kyi bzang po (1012-1088). Rong zom is one of the intellectual pillars of the early rNying ma tradition, and one of the most articulate defenders of the Great Perfection tradition in the early post-Empire period, when the teachings, lineages, and scriptures associated with the early translation period came under assault by the new translation movements (gSar ma), as we saw in an earlier reference to the indictment of bla ma Ye shes ’od and his nephew Pho brang Zhi ba 'od. An important work for our understanding of the reception history of the Eighteen Texts is Rong zom’s treatise Disclosing the Great Vehicle Approach (Theg chen tshul ‘jug), which Dominic Sur, in his great study of the text, has described as a “systematic analysis of various types of Buddhist thought and practices that situates them in relation to the Old School’s lightly distinguished Great Perfection tradition.” According to Sur, Rong zom’s understanding of the Great Perfection tradition is based on the early Mind Series literature, although, as he points out, “the Approach nowhere refers to a Mind Series or Mind Class” corpus of texts, neither does he offer a list of eighteen texts connected to this genre of literature, although he relies heavily on them in his presentation of the Great Perfection. Rong zom also does not mention the All Sovereign King as a text. The chapter of The Approach that offers a discussion of the Great Perfection “is the longest of the text, containing one hundred and eight citations.” Of those one hundred and eight citations, fifty correspond “to five works of the so-called Eighteen Works of the Mind Series (Sems sde bco brgyad), which were becoming increasingly available (and systematized) in the tenth century.” The texts that he quotes are mainly from what will become known as the Five Early Translations by Bai ro tsa na: The Great Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba), The Great Potency (rTsal chen sprugs pa), The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa khu byug), The Great Sky (Nam mkha’ che), and The Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa), with no references to the other texts mentioned by gNubs chen in the Lamp that were considered part of the corpus with the exception of The Marvelous (rMad du byung ba), which he only quotes once. His range of quotations of the early Great Perfection literature, centered on the Five Early Translations, is not as broad as gNubs chen’s, but it still reflects the relevance of the Eighteen Texts in articulating the doctrine and practices of the early Great Perfection tradition.

Rog ban Shes rab’s Lamp of the Teachings

In the 12th century, Rog ban Shes rab (1166–1244) or Rog ban, wrote The Text that Explains the Beliefs of the Different Philosophical Schools. The Great Dharma History and Doxography: A Lamp of the Teachings (Grub mtha' so so'i bzhed tshul gzhung gsal bar ston pa chos 'byung grub mtha' chen po bstan pa'i sgron me). Rog ban’s treatise echoes the works of gNubs chen and Rong zom in which it is an attempt to establish documentary domain and form the significant object of our attentions throughout this essay. These citations, which organize the discussion below, are categorized into three recognizable groups, with a more amorphous but discernible ‘everything-else’ group making a fourth. In the first group of citations we find fifty references to five different chapters the Kun byed rgyal po, each of which correspond to five works of so-called Eighteen Works of the Mind Series (Sems sde bco brgyad), which were becoming increasingly available (and systematized) in the tenth century.” Here I make a different interpretation of Rong zom’s sources from the one presented by Sur in his outstanding work on The Approach. According to Sur, Rong zom is not quoting from the collection of scriptures that will become known as the Eighteen Texts of the Mind Series, but from the All Sovereign King, a text that will incorporate most of those eighteen texts as chapters of a larger scripture, offering a more traditional Buddha narrative and framework to the Mind Series teachings. The problem with this assumption is that Rong zom does not mention the All Sovereign King as a text. When he quotes from the Mind Series corpus, he does refer to them by their individual names such as the Great Sky (Nam mkha’ che), etc. Since Sur has found the exact quotes in the All Sovereign King, he assumes that Rong zom is quoting from the scripture (or an earlier version of it), but while this may be true, it would not make much sense that Rong zom does not refer to it by name. My argument is that at the time of Rong zom’s writing, either the All Sovereign King has not been written, or that it has not yet supplanted the individual identity of the Eighteen Texts. It is possible that these texts may have circulated as a bundle of texts (as we find in some of the Dunhuang Manuscripts such as PT113), but at this time, they may not have lost yet their individual identity. For Sur’s discussion on this topic, see Sur 2105: 328-29, also Higgins 2013: 33. the legitimacy of the lineages and scriptures of the Great Perfection tradition in what it seems a not so welcoming intellectual environment in Tibet that looked with suspicion at scriptures that emerged during the post-Imperial period with dubious claims of Indian origins, and gave primacy to the new tantric scriptures that were being brought into Tibet by a diverse group of Tibetan translators. As Cabezón points out in his translation of Rog ban’s work, “by the 12th century, the unwieldly Semde Tantras had already been systematized into ‘systems’ (lugs) that provided Great Perfection practitioners with the essential terminological, doctrinal, and technical instructions for the practice of Dzogchen”. Rog ban, just as his contemporary, Rong zom, considers the Great Perfection to be the supreme Buddhist vehicle, and relies on Mind Series literature to make that case. Like Rong zom, he does not specifically mention the corpus of Eighteen Texts, and he quotes less frequently from them than gNubs chen and Rong zom, with only specific references to The Great Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba) and The Great Sky (Nam mkha’ che). In fact, many of the quotes are not attributed at all, and it is left to the reader to realize that he is citing from the Mind Series literature. A close reading of the text seems to point toward a transitional period when the Eighteen Texts existed as an independent group of closelyrelated texts, before the incorpora-tion of those scriptures into the single text known as The All Sovereign King (Kun byed rgyal po), which will incorporate a diverse group of Mind Series literature beyond the early corpus of eighteen as individual chapters of a larger tantric text. That would explain the anonymity of many of the sources and the fact that many of them can be traced back to what would become the All Sovereign King.

Making a List and Checking it twice: Nyang ral Nyi ma od’ zer and the Systematization of the Eighteen Texts of the Mind Series

The 12th century rNying ma scholar Nyang ral Nyi ma ‘od zer is the first Tibetan author to offer a list of the Eighteen Texts, something that he does not once, but actually twice, and with some significant difference between both lists. The two different lists can be found in the Copper Continent (bKa’ thang zangs gling ma), and his Religious History (Chos 'byung me tog snying po sbrang rtsi'i bcud). In both texts, the early Great Perfection texts are called the Eighteen Great Scriptures (Lung chen po bco brgyad), even though in the Religious History he only mentions seventeen of them. In neither of the lists does he make an explicit distinction between early and later translations, but this distinction is implicit in a later reference in the text.

Nyang ral Nyi ma od’ zer’s Eighteen Texts in The Copper Continent

1. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Tib. Rig pa khu byug, here as Rig pa khu byug gi lung) 2. Great Potency (Tib. rTsal chen sprugs pa, here as Rig pa rTsal chen gi lung) 3. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Tib. Khyung chen lding ba, here as lTa ba khyung chen gi lung) 4. Meditation on the Enlightened Mind (Tib. Byang chub sems sgom pa, here as rDo la gser zhun gi lung) 5. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Tib. Mi nub rgyal mtshan, here as Mi nub pa'i rgyal mtshan nam mkha' che)

6. The Marvelous (Tib. rMad du byung ba, here as Ye shes rmad byung ba'i lung) 7. The Accomplishment of Meditation (Tib. bsGom don grub pa'i lung) 8. The Supreme Lord (Tib. rJe btsan dam pa as rJe btsun dam pa'i lung) 9. The Quintessential King (Tib. Yang tig rgyal po, here as sKye med ti la ka'i lung or the Mi 'gyur thig le tig) 10. The Wheel of Life (Tib. Srog gi 'khor lo'i lung) 11. The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Tib. Yid bzhin nor bu'i lung) 12. The Compendium (Tib. Kun 'dus, here as Rin po che kun 'dus kyi lung) 13. The King of the Sky (Tib. Nam mkha' rgyal po, here as Nam mkha' che ba rgyal po'i lung) 14. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (Tib. rTse mo byung rgyal gyi lung) 15. The Infinity of Bliss (Tib. bDe ba rab 'byams kyi lung) 16. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (Tib. bDe ba 'phra bkod as bDe ba phra bkod kyi lung) 17. The Great Treasure of Variety (as sNa tshogs gter chen kyi lung) 18. The Epitome of Teachings Scripture (as bKa' lung gi spyi chings dang lung)

Nyang ral Nyi ma od’ zer’s Eighteen Texts in the Religious History

1. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Tib. Rig pa khu byug, here as Rig pa khu byug gi lung) 2. Great Potency (Tib. rTsal chen sprugs pa, here as Rig pa rTsal chen gi lung) 3. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Tib. Khyung chen lding ba, here as lTa ba khyung chen gi lung) 4. Meditation on the Enlightened Mind (Tib. Byang chub sems sgom pa, here as rDo la gser zhun gi lung) 5. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Tib. Mi nub rgyal mtshan, here as Mi nub pa'i rgyal mtshan nam mkha' che)

6. Arriving at the Crucial Point (Tib. gNad du gyur pa) 7. The Supreme Lord (Tib. rJe btsan dam pa) 8. The Quintessential King (Tib. Yang ti rgyal po as Yang tig) 9. The Wheel of Life (Tib. Srog gi 'khor lo) 10. The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Tib. Yid bzhin nor bu) 11. The Compendium (Tib. Kun 'dus) 12. The King of the Sky (Tib. Nam mkha' rgyal po) 13. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (Tib. rTse mo byung rgyal) 14. The Infinity of Bliss (Tib. bDe 'byams) 15. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (Tib. bDe ba 'phra bkod, here as bDe ba phra bkod) 16. Great Realization (Tib. rTogs chen) 17. The Epitome (Tib. sPyi ‘chings, here as Chings)

The first five texts in both lists are identical and coincide with the Five Early Translations later attributed to Bai ro tsa na, but there are some differences in the later thirteen attributed to Vimalamitra. To begin with, Nyang ral’s Religious History only lists seventeen of them. Neither of the lists includes the Six Seminal Nuclei (Thig le drug pa), and some of the titles in both lists are unusual. In the Copper Continent, we find the The Great Treasure of Variety (sNa tshogs gter chen kyi lung), and in the Religious History we find Arriving at the Crucial Point (gNad du gyur ba) and the Great Realization (rTog chen). These names may be alternative titles for the texts missing in the lists, but they are quite unusual and odd in the various lists of the Eighteen Texts. An important contribution by Nyang ral is that he does not only finally offer a list (or lists, as we just saw) of the Eighteen Texts, but he also offers a narrative of how these texts made it into Tibet. In the Copper Continent, Nyang ral weaves a narrative about the introduction of the Great Perfection into Tibet that centers on the Emperor Khri srong lde btsan and the Indian figure of Śrī Siṃha:

King Trisong Deutsen was told that the two most intelligent in Tibet were Vairochana of Pagor, the son of Hedo of Pagor, and Lekdrub of Tsang, the son of Plain God of Tsang. He sent them his command, and they received ordination from Master Bodhisattva. They learned the skill of translation, and Master Padma gave instructions on magical powers. The king furnished them each with a drey of gold dust and a gold patra and sent them off to bring back the sacred Great Perfection from India. When the translators arrived in India they inquired about who was the most learned in the sacred Great Perfection. All the replies were in agreement that the master Shri Singha was the most learned. Having spoken in this way, Shri Singha took them into a house surrounded by nine walls and conferred the empowerment of direct anointment. He then placed a huge copper vessel upon a tripod, and the master sat himself upon it. He donned a cotton robe with lattice work, put a copper pipe to his mouth, and gave teachings.

After this narrative account of the historical context of the arrival of the Great Perfection teachings to Tibet, Nyang ral proceeds to list the Eighteen Texts of the Mind Series and their individual meaning:

Having spoken in this way, Shri Singha took them into a house surrounded by nine walls and conferred the empowerment of direct anointment. He then placed a huge copper vessel upon a tripod, and the master sat himself upon it. He donned a cotton robe with lattice work, put a copper pipe to his mouth, and gave teachings. […] Shri Singha taught the Eighteen Major Scriptures. Since everything originates from awakened mind, he taught the Awareness Cuckoo Scripture. To outshine all effort and fabrication, he taught the Great Strength of Awareness Scripture. Since the nature of mind is perfected within dharmadhatu, he taught the Great Garuda View Scripture. Since the nature of meditation is perfected within space, he taught the Pure Gold on Stone Scripture. To perfect the nature of meditation, he taught the Great Space Never-Waning Banner Scripture. To resolve the nature of mind to be emptiness, he taught the Wonderful Wisdom Scripture. To demonstrate the means of meditation, he taught the Meditation Accomplishment Scripture. To demonstrate that the nature of mind is naturally dharmakaya, he taught the Supreme King Scripture. To demonstrate that the nature of mind is the Single Sphere, he taught the Non-arising Tilaka Scripture. To turn the wheel in the three states of existence, showing that the nature of mind is beyond birth and death, he taught the Wheel of Life-Force Scripture. To demonstrate that desirable qualities originate from the nature of mind, he taught the Wish-Fulfilling Scripture. To let all conceptual thinking rest in the state of dharmata, he taught the All-Embodying Jewel Scripture. To demonstrate in full detail that all the vehicles are perfected and originate in the nature of mind, he taught the Great Space King Scripture. To demonstrate that resting in the nature of mind, the state of Samantabhadra, is unsurpassed, the summit amongst all, he taught the Spontaneous Summit Scripture. To demonstrate that the meaning of the nature of mind is devoid of fabrications and naturally rests in the state of ease, he taught the All-Encompassing Bliss Scripture. To demonstrate that awakened mind remains untainted by the defects of emotional disturbances and is ornamented with the jewelry of qualities, he taught the Jewel-Studded Bliss Scripture. To demonstrate that all of samsara and nirvana originates within the expanse of awakened mind, he taught the Variegated Great Treasury Scripture. To demonstrate and epitomize all the vehicles within awakened mind, he taught the Epitome of Teachings Scripture. Thus, he taught eighteen volumes of scriptures.

What is compelling about this narrative is how the origin of these scriptures, as well as the Great Perfection tradition, is not only weaved into part of the most glorious period of the Tibetan Empire, but also that it is linked all the way back to India. Previous scholars had tried to legitimize the Great Perfection teachings as having Indian origins before gNubs chen’s Lamp, for example, including a list of the Indian teachers responsible for the early Great Perfection teachings, but this is the first time we have a lengthy narrative that is presented as an historical account of the transmission of the tradition into Tibet. It is important to note, though, that Nyang ral does not mention the All Sovereign King in the text, which seems to reinforce the argument that the text was probably not around, or was not an important aspect of the tradition until after the 12th century, since none of the great rNying ma scholars of the period (Rong zom, Rog ban, and Nyang ral) mention it.

Clay Pots, Deerskin Hoods, and Goat’s Milk Ink: Master Śrī Siṃha, Bai ro tsa na, and the Eighteen Texts in the 13th Century

The most detailed narrative account of the transmission of the Eighteen Texts into Tibet can be found in the 13th century text the Mask of Bai ro tsa na, (Bairo'i 'dra 'bag chen mo), which is included as the last volume (in fact as the last text) in the Bairo'i rgyud 'bum, an anomalous collection of rNying ma literature that, unlike other canonical collections, includes only texts belonging to the Great Perfection tradition (no Mahāyoga or Anuyoga texts are included). As we have seen, Nyang ral offers two lists of the texts that composed the corpus, and he also offers a narrative that links their transmission to the Emperor Khri srong lde btsan, as well as Bai ro tsa na. The Mask of Bai ro tsa na will also offer a comprehensive list as well as a narrative account, but there are important differences. As we will see, the composition of the list in The Mask of Bai ro tsa na and in Nyang ral’s works is slightly different, and the narrative is much more developed in The Mask than in Nyang ral’s Copper Continent. The different narrative focus can be easily explained since Nyang ral’s Copper Continent is attempting to create a narrative framework for the rNying ma tradition as a whole that focuses on Padmasambhava as the central transmitter of the rNying ma teachings into Tibet. The Mask of Bai ro tsa na, on the other hand, is trying to do the same, but, this time, establishing the Tibetan translator Bai ro tsa na as the central figure for the tradition. The Mask of Bai ro tsa na seems to operate at two levels. On the one hand, it offers a biography of the extraordinary life of this unique Tibetan translator and of his trips to India in search of texts and teachings. On the other hand, it is an attempt to establish the legitimacy of the Great Perfection Tradition by offering an incredibly detailed narrative of the uninterrupted lineage of the Great Perfection teachings that goes not only back to the Buddha Sakyamuni himself, but also to their emergence in the celestial land of Akanishta. In this sense, it seems that The Mask is trying to develop not only an historical, but also a mythological framework for the transmission of the teachings that links them to a primordial Buddha. According to The Mask, the transmission of the Great Perfection teachings to Tibet begins with the Emperor Khri srong lde btsan, who in a former life had been born in India as a monk called Avadhuti and had practiced Atiyoga. The Emperor realized that the Great Perfection is a teaching that transcends all other doctrines and that it should be brought to Tibet. In order to do so he sends two monks to India, Bai ro tsa na and Legs grub, who, once in India, meet with the main holder of the lineage, Master Śrī Siṃha. The actual account of the transmission, although similar in content to that of Nyang ral, has enough differences that it warrants its full citation here:

Every day they listened to the Secret Mantra teachings based on the result from the later seven scholars and others. And every night they listened to Shri Singha’s explanations on the pith instructions of the effortless Great Perfection, the heart of the doctrine. Inside his room Master Shri Singha put a clay pot on top of three big stones and surrounded it with a net. He sat inside the pot and had the opening covered with a big lid on which a pan filled with water was placed. A pipe ran through a hole in the pot and crossed through a cleft in the wall outside of the house. At midnight, Vairotsana and Lekdrub listened outside as Shri Singha whispered the teachings through the tube. They each had on a big deerskin hood, carried loads on their shoulders, held walking sticks, wore their clothes backward, and had put on worn-out pairs of boots the wrong way around. Lekdrub wrote down the teachings in the waning moonlight with white goats’ milk, while Vairotsana fully understood them by a mere indication and perfected the doctrine in his mind. As a sign that the doctrine would come to Tibet, Shri Singha taught Cuckoo of Awareness (Tib. Rig pa'i khu byug). To express that everything is perfect, he taught Shaking of Great Power (Tib. rTsal chen sprugs pa). To express the meaning of meditation, he taught Sixfold Sphere (Tib. Thig le drug pa). To express the conclusion of the view and conduct of all the vehicles, he taught Soaring Garuda (Tib. Khyung chen lding ba). To show the superiority of Ati over the other vehicles, he taught the view of Never-Waning Banner (Tib. Mi nub rgyal mtshan). Then he asked, “Noble sons, are you satisfied?” And they answered, “We are overjoyed!” Then, to show the unity of all philosophical views, he taught WishFulfilling Gem (Tib. Yid bzhin nor bu). To show the greatness of the teachings and instructions, he taught Supreme Lord (Tib. rJe btsan dam pa). To indicate the need to recognize earlier and later flaws and qualities, he taught King of Mental Action (Tib. Spyi gcod rgyal po). To indicate the need to rely on the three types of knowledge, he taught All-Embodying Jewel (Tib. Kun ‘dus). These are the four minor teachings. To indicate that all knowledge should depend on the teachings, he taught Infinite Bliss (Tib. Bde ‘byams). To show that the fruition is included in the body, speech, and mind, he taught the Wheel of Life (Tib. Srog gi ‘khor lo). To indicate the need to depend on example, meaning, and symbol, he explained Commentary on Mind (Tib. Yang tig rgyal po) and King of Space (Tib. Nam mkha’ rgyal po). These are the four medium teachings. Indicating how to help others through the provisional and definitive meaning, he taught Jewel-Studded Bliss (Tib. bDe ba ‘phra bkod). To indicate the need of distinguishing all vehicles, he taught Universal Bondage (Tib. Spyi chings). To avoid the arising of logical contradictions, he taught Pure Gold on Stone (Tib. rDo la gser zhun = Byang chub sems bsgom pa). And because the conduct and the precepts are the yogi’s life-force, he taught Spontaneous Summit (Tib. rTse mo byung rgyal). These are the four greater classes. To check whether a teaching is mistaken or valid, he taught the Marvelous (Tib. rmad du byung ba), and asked, “Are you satisfied with this?” They answered, “We are not satisfied yet. Please give us the tantras and oral instructions that the Buddha taught on these pith instructions!” Upon their request, Shri Singha explained the Eighteen Tantras with the pointing out instructions and asked, “Are you satisfied now?” Lekdrub, because he wanted to impress the king, said, “I am satisfied,” and left. On the way (back to Tibet) he was killed by border guards and died at the age of forty-four.

The list as presented in the Mask of Bai ro tsa na is, then, as follows:

1. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa khu byug) 2. Great Potency (rTsal chen sprugs pa) 3. The Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa) 4. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba) 5. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Mi nub rgyal mtshan)

The Four Small Texts - (Tib. Chung ba bzhi)

6. The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Yid bzhin nor bu) 7. The Supreme Lord (rJe btsan dam pa) 8. The Universally Definitive Perfection (rDzogs pa spyi gcod spyod, here as Spyi gcod rgyal po) 9. The Compendium (Kun 'dus, here as Kun 'dus rig pa)

The Four Middle Texts (Tib. 'Bring po bzhi)

10. The Infinity of Bliss (bDe 'byam) 11. The Wheel of Life (Srog gi 'khor lo) 12. The Essence of Bodhicitta (the Byang chub sems tig, here as Sems gi tig) 13. The King of the Sky (Nam mkha' rgyal po)

The Four Great Sections (Tib. Che phyogs bzhi)

14. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (bDe ba 'phra bkod) 15. The Epitome (sPyi chings) 16. Gold Refined from Ore (rDo la gser zhun, another name for the Byang chub sems bsgom pa) 17. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (rTse mo byung rgyal) 18. The Marvelous (rMad du byung ba)

There are several interesting aspects to the account, the almost eccentric transmission itself, with Master Śrī Siṃha sitting inside a clay pot and transmitting the teachings through a pipe being one of them, but let us focus here on the actual list put forward in the narrative. To begin with, The Mask offers a slightly different list of texts from those offered by Nyang ral. If we compare The Mask with Nyang ral’s Copper Continent, we see that the Mask doesn’t include the The Efficacious Meditation (bsGom don grub pa’i lung) or The Great Treasure of Variety, instead including The Six Spheres and the Essence of Bodhicitta (Sems gi tig). Also, although The Mask will make a reference later in the text to the Five Early Translations attributed to Bai ro tsa na, and the Thirteen Later Translations by Vimalamitra, the account here offers a different classification with an unlabeled group of five that largely corresponds to the Five Early Translations, followed by a group of Four Small (Chung ba bzhi), Four Middle (‘Bring po bzhi), and Four Great (Che phyogs bzhi) texts. An important aspect for our study of the reception history of the Eighteen Texts is that The Mask does mention twice the All Sovereign King, which signals a key transitional point in the history of the Mind Series literature in which the Eighteen Texts as an independent collection and the All Sovereign King, the tantra that will end up collecting and replacing the Eighteen Texts as the key literature of the Mind Series, are mentioned in the same narrative. The first reference places Bai ro tsa na as translating the All Sovereign King (All-Creating Monarch in Ani Jinba’s translation):

Of the tantric scriptural Dharma, he translated the Tantra of Yamantaka's Words, Precious Discourse Tantra, King of Mastery Tantra, Five Tantras including Great Space Tantra, the Marvelous, All-Creating Monarch Tantra [i.e. The All Sovereign King], Ten Sutras, and Ocean Expanse Instructions.

The second reference is to gNyags Jñānakumara, who received the transmission of the text from gYu sgra sNying po:

From Yudra [[[Nyingpo]]], [[[Nyang]]] Jnana received the Five Early Translations as well as the Thirteen Later Translations. He received the pith instructions of the Eighteen Tantras of the Mind Class, the earlier and final tantras of the All-Creating Monarch, and the Root Scripture, and Commentary Sutras.

The Mask, then, marks an important transitional moment in the transmission of the Eighteen Texts, one that will signal its importance as the key texts of the early Great Perfection tradition, but one that also points to its decline by introducing its successor, the All Sovereign King.

All Hail to the All Sovereign King: The lDe’u jo sras and the Decline of the Eighteen Texts as a Corpus

An important reference for our understanding of the history of the early Great Perfection literature in general, and the Eighteen Texts in particular, can be found in the lDe’u jo sras history, a text composed in the first half of the 13th century, and that, as van der Kuijp has pointed out in his study of the text, is among the earliest Tibetan histories to have included an account of Buddhism in India as well as of its introduction to Tibet. The text refers to the Eighteen Texts as the “eighteen minor [texts] of the Mind Section,” which are the root of the Mind Section (sems phyogs rtsa ba sems smad bco brgyad). The text also offers a clear distinction between the Five Early Translations and the Thirteen Later ones. Here is the list:

Five Early Translations (lNga 'gyur lnga'o)

1. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Mi nub rgyal mtshan, here as Nam ka che) 2. Great Potency (rTsal chen sprugs pa, here as rTsal chen) 3. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba, here as Khyung chen) 4. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa’i khu byug, here as Rig pa khu yug) 5. Meditation on the Enlightened Mind (Byang chub sems bsgom pa, here as Byang chub sems bsgom pa)

Thirteen Later Translations (Phyis 'gyur bcu gsum zhes bya'o)

6. Byang chub sems myu gu (this text is in Tk. 29 within a collection of the Thirteen Later Translations) 7. Tig (I have not been able to identify this text, which could refer to the Yang tig rgyal po or the Thig le drug pa) 8. The Compendium (Kun 'dus, here as Kun 'dus) 9. The Infinity of Bliss (bDe ba rab 'byams kyi lung, here as bDe 'jam) 10. Gnas yar 'debs (I have not been able to identify this text) 11. The King of the Sky (Nam mkha' rgyal po, here as Nam ka'i rgyal po) 12. The Universally Definitive Perfection (rDzogs pa spyi gcod spyod, here as rdzogs pa spyir gcod) 13. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (rTse mo byung rgyal gyi lung, here as rTse mo byung rgyal) 14. The Supreme Lord (rJe btsan dam pa, here as rJe gtsun dam pa) 15. The Wheel of Life (Srog gi 'khor lo'i lung, here as Srog gi 'khor lo) 16. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (bDe ba 'phra bkod, here as bDe ba phra bkod)

The Five Early Translations correspond with what by this time seems like a standard, accepted list of texts, but the Thirteen Later Translations is a little unusual, and does not include texts like the Epitome (Spyi chings), the Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa, although it does mention a text by the name of “Tig,” which could be a reference to it), or the Efficacious Meditation (bsGom don grub pa), including instead other unusual titles such as the gNas yar ‘debs, which I have not been able to locate. The most important point made in the text, though, is its statement that among all of the scriptures said to belong to the Mind Section, there is another text that is considered to be central to the tradition, the All Sovereign King: “As for the Mind Section, generally, many are said to be tantras [of this section], but without mistake, the Root tantra is the All Sovereign King.” So while the lDe’u jo sras acknowledged the historical importance of the Eighteen Texts, the texts also reveal a shift in the importance towards the All Sovereign King, which seems to have become by this time the central text of the Mind Series tradition. How are we to explain the differences between The Mask of Bai ro tsa na and the lDe’u jo sras, both written in the 13th century? I would argue that by the 13th century the Great Perfection tradition as a whole is evolving and incorporating new teachings and scriptures, particularly those of the Seminal Heart (snying thig), which means that the early Mind Series is becoming, gradually, a thing of the past. Those scriptures are also being compiled into a single, larger text, the All Sovereign King, which will transform a diverse group of poetic exhortations, short in practical details and long in rhetoric, into a more traditional tantric scripture, with a defined Buddha narrative centered around the figure of the All Good (Tib. Kun tu bzang po, Skt. Samantabhadra) and a ritual framework. As the Great Perfection tradition was growing and becoming more diverse, there was a push to organize and structure the diverse groups of early teachings and the All Sovereign King did just that by transforming all of those early texts into chapters of a larger, more cohesive book. The different treatment of the Eighteen Texts between the Mask of Bai ro tsa na and the lDe’u jo sras could also be explained when taking into account their implicit audiences. As Cabezón has pointed out, the lDe’u, as a history that was trying to insert Tibetan Buddhism within the larger framework of Buddhism in India, took “a more conciliatory approach by arguing that the Old and New teachings, although perhaps using different nomenclature, were essentially the same.” The Mask of Bai ro tsa na, instead, was trying to assert the supremacy of the Great Perfection not only from the developments of the New schools, but also from other developments within the rNying ma tradition, and therefore would still be more attached to a traditional presentation of the Eighteen Texts as a collection of independent texts.

Trying to Make Sense of it All: Klong chen pa and the reception of the Eighteen Texts in the 14th Century

The 14th century is period of intense intellectual activity, with all of the schools of Tibetan Buddhism trying to make sense of their own scriptural traditions. This is the period when the New Translation schools collect and systematize for the first time their scriptures into the two collections of the bKa’ ‘gyur, or the words of the Buddha, and the bsTan ‘gyur, its commentaries. As a response to the canon building project of the New Translation Schools (gSar ma), the rNying ma School created its own canon, known as The Collected Tantras of the Ancients (rNying ma rgyud 'bum), of which there will be different editions. It is also during this century that one of the most important figures in the history of the rNying ma tradition, Klong chen rab ‘byams Dri med ‘od zer, looked back at the received legacy of the Great Perfection tradition and tried to make sense of it. Klong chen pa was a prolific scholar, and he reflects on the nature of the early Great Perfection Tradition and in its literature in many of his works. Klong chen pa is perfectly aware that there were many discrepancies in the historical description as well as well as the lists of the Eighteen Texts in rNying ma literature. Klong chen pa’s corpus offers several references to the Eighteen Texts, and we can find interspersed throughout his collected works up to seven different lists and, in some cases, he even offers two different lists within the same text. An interesting example of this can be found in the Treasury of Spiritual and Philosophical Systems (Grub mtha’ mdzod), in which Klong chen pa offers two sets of lists. The first list, actually, includes a total of twenty-one texts, divided between the standard Five Early Translations (sNga 'gyur lnga), the Thirteen Later Translations (Phyi 'gyur bcu gsum), and then he adds three more texts to the list, the All Sovereign King, the Marvelous (rMad byung, which was traditionally seen as one of the eighteen), and the Ten Sūtras (mDo bcu) to round it up to twenty-one. Here is the list:

"The Five Early Translations" (sNga 'gyur lnga)

1. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa'i khu byug) 2. Great Potency (rTsal chen sprugs pa) 3. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba) 4. Meditation on the Enlightened Mind (Byang chub sems bsgom pa, although the title here is rDo la gser zhun) 5. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Mi nub rgyal mtshan, here as Mi nub pa'i rgyal mtshan nam mkha' che)

The Thirteen Later Translations (Phyir 'gyur bcu gsum)

6. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (rTse mo byung rgyal) 7. The King of the Sky (Nam mkha' rgyal po) 8. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (bDe ba 'phra bkod here as bDe ba 'phrul bkod) 9. The Epitome (sPyi chings, here as rDzogs pa spyi chings) 10. The Quintessential King (Yang tig rgyal po, here as Byang chub sems tig) 11. The Infinity of Bliss (bDe 'byams, here as bDe bar 'byams) 12. The Wheel of Life (Srog gi 'khor lo) 13. The Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa) 14. The Universally Definitive Perfection (rDzogs pa spyi gcod spyod) 15. The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Yid bzhin nor bu) 16. The Compendium (Kun 'dus, here as Kun 'dus rig pa) 17. The Supreme Lord (rJe btsan dam pa) 18. The Accomplishment of Meditation (sGom don grub pa)

And he adds the following three to transform the list of eighteen into one of twenty-one ("de dag gi steng du be ros sngar bsgyur ba'i kun byed/ rmad byung/ mdo bcu gsum bsdoms pas sems sde nyer gcig go"):

19. The All Creating King (Kun byed) 20. The Marvelous (rMad byung) 21. The Ten Sūtras (mDo bcu)

As we can see, the lists accept the difference between the traditional five and thirteen divisions, while adding another layer to incorporate later texts such as the All Sovereign King that have become central to the tradition in later centuries. It is also important to point out how Klong chen pa adds gNyags Jñānakumara and gYu sgra sNying po as translators or, at least, essential to the transmission of the Thirteen Later Translations. The second list can be found later in the same work and it is described as the “Eighteen Sectioned Transmissions” (lung bam po bco brgyad):

1. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa’i khu byug) 2. Great Potency (rTsal chen sprugs pa) 3. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba, here as Khyung chen rdzogs pa) 4. Meditation on the Enlightened Mind (Byang chub sems bsgom pa, here as rDo la gser zhun) 5. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Mi nub rgyal mtshan)

6. The Supreme Lord (rJe btsan dam pa, here as Ye shes dam pa) 7. The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Yid bzhin nor bu) 8. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (rTse mo byung rgyal) 9. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (bDe ba 'phra bkod) 10. The King of the Sky (Nam mkha' rgyal po) 11. The Wheel of Life (Srog gi 'khor lo) 12. The Epitome (sPyi chings, here as Lhun rdzogs spyi chings) 13. The Infinity of Bliss (Bde 'byams, here as bDe bar rab 'byams) 14. The Quintessential King (Yang tig rgyal po) 15. The Marvelous (rMad du byung ba, here as rMad byung rgyal po) 16. The Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa, here as Thig le kun 'dus) 17. The Tantra of the Edge and the Center of the Sky (Nam mkha' mtha' dbus kyi rgyud, this is an unusual text)

Klong chen pa does not offer a difference between the early and the later translations, and does not add the three additional texts to round the collection up to twenty-one. In fact, he does not offer a complete list of the eighteen and somehow only mentions seventeen. The contents of the lists are quite similar, although the order of the Thirteen Texts is different, and the Marvelous is here considered one of the eighteen, unlike in the previous list. How does Klong chen pa, then, reconcile the existence of two different lists within the same text with slightly different titles, a slightly different order, and even expanding the list in one case to twenty-one? He goes on to argue that the lists are different, since, in fact, there are two completely different sets of Eighteen texts:

"Though some of the listed titles for "the eighteen sectioned scriptures" (Lung bam po bco brgyad) are similar to the titles in "the eighteen subsequent mind series texts (Sems smad bco brgyad), in fact they differ in terms of being earlier and later, their length, and their translators (into Tibetan)."

It is difficult to corroborate Klong chen pa’s assertion that there were two different sets of Eighteen Texts since we cannot extrapolate the contents of the texts from their titles. Germano suggests that “Longchenpa's presentation derives from the confusion of this repetition of titles and the existence of various rubrics for the set, rather than that he had access to two distinct bodies of literature with the specified contents (though this remains a possibility.)” I would also add that the assertion points toward the fluidity of those texts that may have preserved titles, but they may have evolved, grown, and developed differently depending on their lines of transmission, and may have changed as they were being transmitted by different lineages. Nevertheless, what seems obvious when reading Klong chen pa’s works is that by the 14th century the Mind Series tradition is being relegated in importance in favor of new scriptures and practices belonging to the Seminal Heart, in which Klong chen pa plays a central role.

Finding the Needle in the Haystack: Looking for the Eighteen Texts in the Various rNying ma rgyud ‘bum Collections

Prior to the 14th century, our understanding of the Eighteen Texts as a corpus, but also as individual texts, was mostly possible through the various references to them in other works that we have explored in this article. The problem with this approach, though, is that we don’t have access to the actual texts. As Klong chen pa argued, there may have been titles within the collection with the same names, but with very different contents. So, when gNubs chen and Rong zom referred to the Never Declining Banner, for example, they may have been talking about two different texts with the same title, something not uncommon in Tibetan culture. After the 14th century, though, after the emergence of different canonical collections of the Collected Tantras of the Ancients, we finally have access to the actual texts of the early Great Perfection tradition and we can add a new layer to our understanding of the nature and transmission of the Eighteen Texts. What we find is, at first, quite puzzling, since an actual collection of Eighteen Texts is nowhere to be found in any of the Collected Tantras of the Ancients collections. How is this possible? If the texts played such a central role during the early development of the Great Perfection, and the collection is constantly cited by important rNying ma scholars, how is it that we cannot find it in any of the canonical editions? As I pointed out in the introduction to this article, a close examination of the various canons and the lack of a full set of the Eighteen Texts in any of them, gives more credence to the possibility that there never was an established collection of eighteen texts in the first place. Here, I will limit my examination of those collections to the Bai ro’i rgyud ‘bum and the mTshams brag edition of the rNying ma canon. The Bai ro’i rgyud ‘bum, as I have pointed out, is a collection of rNying ma literature that only includes Great Perfection texts, and excludes Anuyoga and Mahāyoga literature. His exclusive focus on Great Perfection literature makes it an obvious place to search for a collection so important for its early history. In the Bai ro’i rgyud ‘bum, there is a collection of the the Five Early Translations (rDzogs pa chen po snga 'gyur lnga) in volume 5, but it only contains four of the texts, without the standard Mi nub rgyal mtshan. A version of this text can be found in volume 2 (Bg. 52), and there are versions of the texts in the same volume (Bg. 49-53, see list below). It is interesting, though, that many of the Thirteen Later Translations are not included here, and the ones included are spread in various volumes. In volume 1 we find the rTse mo byung rgyal (Bg. 16), and bDe ba 'phra bkod (Bg. 21). Volume 2 has also a version of the rMad du byung ba in Bg. 43 and B.g 44, but the following ten texts are missing:

1. The Supreme Lord (rJe btsan dam pa) 2. The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Yid bzhin nor bu) 3. The King of the Sky (Nam mkha' rgyal po) 4. The Wheel of Life (Srog gi 'khor lo) 5. The Epitome (sPyi ‘chings) 6. The Infinity of Bliss (bDe 'byams) 7. The Quintessential King (Yang tig rgyal po) 8. The Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa) 9. The Accomplishment of Meditation (bsGom don grub pa) 10. The Compendium (Kun 'dus)

In most of the other collections, the absence of these texts is not as dramatic as in this collection, but we find a similar pattern of inconsistency, with some texts missing, and also some of them scattered in different volumes and not as a single collection, or as part of other texts, mainly included as chapters of the All Sovereign King.

In the mTshams brag edition, many of the Eighteen Texts are not the earliest versions of the texts but longer versions of them. This is particularly interesting in the Five Earlier Translations, where only one of them is the earlier, shorter version. The Five Earlier Translations are in volume 1 (Tb. 19-23) but with the exception of the Byang chub sems bsgom pa, they are longer versions of the text. Most of the Thirteen Later Translations are also found in the same volume, although three texts with The Marvelous (rMad du byung ba) in their title are in vol. 2 (Tb. 54-56), and the Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa) is in vol. 5 Tb 124. The three texts missing are: The Wish-fulfilling Gem (Yid bzhin nor bu), The Epitome (sPyi ‘chings), and The Accomplishment of Meditation (bsGom don grub pa). The Eighteen Texts as found in the mTsams brag edition are:

1. The Cuckoo of Awareness (Rig pa khu byug, Tb. 19) 2. Great Potency (rTsal chen sprugs pa, Tb. 20) 3. The Great Soaring Garuḍa (Khyung chen lding ba, Tb. 21) 4. Meditation on the Enlightened Mind (Byang chub sems bsgom pa, Tb. 22) 5. The Never Declining Banner of the Great Sky (Mi nub rgyal mtshan, Tb. 23) 6. The Supreme Lord (rJe btsan dam pa, Tb. 25) 7. The Quintessential King (Yang tig rgyal po, here as Mi 'gyur ba'i thig le tig, Tb. 26) 8. The Wheel of Life (Srog gi 'khor lo, Tb. 27) 9. The King of the Sky (Nam mkha' rgyal po also as Nam mkha'i rgyal po, Tb. 28) 10. The Victorious Emergence of the Peak (rTse mo byung rgyal, Tb. 29) 11. The Infinity of Bliss (bDe 'jams, Tb. 30) 12. The Inlaid Jewels of Bliss (bDe ba 'phra bkod, here as bDe ba phra bkod, Tb. 31) 13. The Compendium (Kun 'dus, Tb. 32) 14. The Universally Definitive Perfection (rDzogs pa spyi gcod spyod, Tb. 35) 15. The Marvelous (rMad du byung ba, Tb. 54 / 55/ 56)

The Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa) is included in the text Nyi zla dang mnyam pa dri ma med pa'i rgyud (Tb. 40)

What does this mean? How can there be constant references in rNying ma literature to this collection of texts, considered central to its early development, only to not have any complete record of it?

When a Number is not a Number: The Eighteen Texts as an Idea

The confusion about the nature and actual content of the Eighteen Texts has been as obvious to traditional rNying ma scholars as to modern ones. Samten Karmay, in his groundbreaking study of Great Perfection literature, synthesizes this feeling, stating that: “Considerable confusion reigns over this list among the rNying ma pa works. Each claims to have eighteen, but often gives only sixteen or seventeen [...] The titles also vary from one source to another.” Germano has worked extensively in trying to map out the various lists and references to the Eighteen Texts in early Great Perfection literature. Recent work by Karen Liljenberg has done very valuable work locating some of the Eighteen Texts that scholars have considered to be missing or lost in some of the editions of the rNying ma rgyud ‘bum. In two articles, she found four of the texts that scholars had not been able to locate, hiding in plain sight, under different titles, or incorporated into larger texts. Those texts are the Six Spheres (Thig le drug pa), the Epitome (sPyi chings), the Accomplishment of Meditation (bsGom pa don grub), and the Wish-fulfilling Gem (Yi bzhin nor bu). The “disappearance” of some of these texts could be explained by the fact that many of the Eighteen Texts ended up being incorporated into the larger and more popular All Sovereign King, transforming many of the independent texts into chapters of this tantra. But the lack of consistency among the various lists, and the remarkable differences between some of the texts that bear the same title, may also warrant a different approach to our study of this literature. I would, in fact, argue that the discrepancies of the various lists can be explained by simply accepting that there was never a collection of Eighteen Texts, and that the collection operated more as an ideal than as a physical reality. As David Gray argued in his article “On the Very Idea of a Tantric Canon”:

Perhaps one of the most important and persistent ideas that underlies the tantric traditions of Buddhism is the notion that a complete collection of tantric scriptures [...] or Collection of Tantras (Tantrapiṭaka), either did exist in the past, and/or continues to exist in an alternate level of reality. This notion was advanced as an important legitimating ideology at the initial stage of the development of tantric traditions and their literature, and it has remained a widespread belief up until the present day […] This belief, and the myths that express it, had a significant impact on the ways in which tantric traditions constructed their histories and identities, and in the ways in which they organized and understood their canons of literature.

The closer we examine the various lists, their discrepancies, and its absence as a complete collection in the canon, the more sense it makes that the strength of the idea of an early corpus of eighteen texts does not reside in its actual content, which as we have seen differs from author to author (sometimes even for the same author) and from period to period, but the strength lies in the “idea” that there is a closed canon transmitted by an Indian figure (Śrī Siṃha) to his Tibetan disciples. The notion of the eighteen operates as a framework (Gray calls this an “empty signifier”) that allows the early Great Perfection tradition to group a nascent but varied corpus of works under one umbrella and distinguish themselves from other Buddhist traditions. The most obvious similarity is in the Eighteen Tantras of Mahāyoga, a collection that the early Great Perfection, with its connections to that tradition, may have tried to emulate in order to achieve legitimacy. But as Sur has also pointed out, eighteen also has important symbolic value for the Buddhist tradition, since it “evokes a sense of completeness. There are eighteen sciences (aṣṭadaśavidyāsthāna) to comprise knowledge, eighteen instruments (rol mo’i bye brag) to comprise music, eighteen mainstream Buddhist schools (aṣṭadaśanikāya) to comprise orthodoxy,” etc. In conclusion, looking for the “original” texts, I believe, should not guide us into thinking that we can somehow “recover” the original versions of these texts or an original lost collection. These texts were, for the most part, works in progress, an inspiration for later generations of scholars that rewrote, changed, expanded, and commented on what we should see as a literary genre and not simply as a literary corpus or canon.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

Bai ro’i rgyud ’bum W21519. Smanrtsis Shesrig Spendzod, vol. 16-23. S.W. Tashigangpa, 1971. https://www.tbrc.org/#!rid=W21519. Blo gros rgyal mtshan. Dris lan nges don ’brug sgra. W27914 ed., n.d. Bsod nams rtse mo. Chos la ‘jug pa’i sgo, in Sa skya gong ma rnam lnga'i gsung 'bum dpe bsdur ma las bsod nams rtse mo'i gsung. Beijing: Krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang, v.3, pp.389–496. TBRC: W2DB4568. dPa’ bo gTsug lag phreng ba. A Scholar’s Feast (Chos “Byung Mkhas Pa’i Dga” Ston). TBRC W7499., n.d. Dung dkar Blo bzang ’phrin las. Dung dkar tshig mdzod chen mo. Beijing: Krung-go’i bod rig pa’i dpe skrun khang, 2002. gNubs chen Sangye ye shes. bSam gtan mig sgron, Vol. 97. in the 110 vol. of the bKa’ ma shin tu rgyas pa. Chengdu: KaH thog mKhan po ’Jam dbyangs, 1990s. ———. bSam gtan mig sgron 120. Vol. 104 in the 120 vol. of the bKa’ ma shin tu rgyas pa. Chengdu: KaH thog mKhan po ’Jam dbyangs, 1999. ———. bSam gtan mig sgron 133. Vol. 104 in the 133 vol. of the bKa’ ma shin tu rgyas pa. Chengdu, 2009.

and I am not certain of this, that eighteen operates symbolically – as a cipher, as it were.” Gray (2009: 13) also points out in his article the importance of other symbolic numbers such as one hundred thousand within the Buddhist tradition: “This is because the label ‘one hundred thousand’ quickly came to function in esoteric Buddhist discourse as an empty signifier, a signifier without a signified. As Ernesto Laclau argued, such signifiers are ‘signifiers of lack, an absent totality.’” Almogi (2013) makes the same argument about the Eighteen Mahāyoga Tantric Cycles. ———. rNal byor mig gi Bsam gtan, or, bSam gtan mig sgron: A Treatise on Bhāvana and Dhyāna and the Relationships between the Various Approaches to Buddhist Contemplative Practice. Edited by S. W. Tashigangpa. Leh: smanrtsis shesrig spendzod, 1974. ———. Sangs rgyas ye shes rin po che’i lo rgyus gnubs kyi bka’ shog chen mo (Vol. 42 of the bKa’ ma shin tu rgyas pa). Chengdu: KaH thog mKhan po ’Jam dbyangs, 1999. Gu ru bKra shis. Gu ru bkra shis chos ’byung (bstan pa’i snying po gsang chen snga ‘gyur nges don zab mo’i chos kyi byung ba gsal bar byed pa’i legs mkhas pa dga byed ngo mtshar gtam gyi rol mtsho). W20916 ed. Beijing: Krung go’i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khang, 1990. ’Gyur med Tshe dbang mChog grub. “rNying ma’i rgyud ’bum gyi dkar chag (smad cha).” In gSung ’bum/’Gyur med tshe dbang mchog grub, TBRC W15098., n.d. IOL Tib J 647 Rig pa’i khu byug. Accessed May 25, 2017. http://idp.bl.uk/database/oo_scroll_h.a4d?uid=244325305;bst =1;recnum=5499;index=1;img=1. KaH thog mkhan po ’Jam dbyangs, ed. bKa’ ma shin tu rgyas pa (KaH thog). 120 vols. Chengdu, 1999. Klong chen chos ’byung. Gangs can rig mdzod 17. Lhasa: Bod ljongs bod yig dpe rnying dpe skrun khang, 1991. lDe'u Jo sras, Chos ‘byung chen mo bstan pa’i rgyal mtshan lde’u jo sras kyis mdzad pa, Lhasa: Bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang, 1987. mKhas btsun bZang po. Biographical Dictionary of Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism (Rgya bod mkhas grub rim byon gyi rnam thar phyogs bsgrigs). 12 vols. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives, 1973. mKhas pa lDe'u, rGya Bod kyi chos ‘byung rgyas pa, Lhasa: Bod ljongs mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 1987. Nyang ral Nyi ma ’od zer. bKa’ thang zangs gling ma. TBRC W1KG14. Vol. 1. Rin chen gter mdzod chen mo. New Delhi: Shechen publications, n.d. ———. Nyang ral chos ’byung. Chos ’byung me tog snying po shrang rtsi’i bcud. Vol. 5. Gangs can rig mdzod. Lhasa: Bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang, 1988. Nor brang O rgyan. Bod sil bu’i byung ba brjod pa shel dkar phren. Lhasa: Bod ljongs mi dmangs dpe skrun khang, 1991. Padma ’Phrin las, Dus pa mdo dbang gi bla ma brgyud pa’i rnam thar ngo mtshar dad pa’i phreng ba. In bKa’ ma mdo dbang gi bla ma rgyud pa’i rnam Thar, Vol. 37. Leh: Smanrtsis shesrig spendzod, 1972. Palden Sherab. gNubs chen sangs rgyas ye shes kyi bsam gtan mig sgron le’u rnams kyi spyi bshad mdor bsdus shes rab mig ’byed (Opening the Eyes of Wisdom. A Commentary on Sangye Yeshe’s Lamp of the Eye of Contemplation). Boca Raton: Sky Dance, n.d. Rnying Ma Rgyud ’Bum (mTshams Brag Dgon Pa’i Bris Ma) TBRC W21521. Thimphu: National Library, Royal Government of Bhutan, 1982. https://www.tbrc.org/#!rid=W21521. Sangs rgyas thams cad kyi dgongs pa ’dus pa’i mdo chen po (Sūtra of the Gathered Intentions). Vol. 16. Of rNying ma’i rgyud ’bum. Snga ‘gyur bka’ ma shin tu rgyas Pa. 133 vols. Chengdu: Si khron dpe skrun tshogs pa/ si khron mi rigs dpe skrun khang, 2009.

Secondary Sources

Almogi, Orna. “The Eighteen Mahāyoga Tantric Cycles: A Real Canon or the Mere Notion of One?” Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines 30 (October 2014): 47–110. Cabezón, José Ignacio, and Jose Ignacio Cabezón. The Buddha’s Doctrine and the Nine Vehicles: Rog Bande Sherab’s Lamp of the Teachings. Oxford University Press, 2013. Chattopadhyaya, Alaka, 982-1054. Atīśa, and Lama Chimpa. Atīśa and Tibet: Life and Works of Dīpamkara Śrījñāna in Relation to the History and Religion of Tibet. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1981. Dalton, Jacob. “A Crisis of Doxography: How Tibetans Organized Tantra During the 8th-12th Centuries.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 28, no. 1 (2005): 115– 81. ———. “The Uses of the DGongs Pos ’Dus Pa’i Mdo in the Development of the RNying Ma School of Tibetan Buddhism.” University of Michigan, 2002. Dalton, Jacob Paul. The Taming of the Demons: Violence and Liberation in Tibetan Buddhism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011. Dalton, Jacob, and Sam Schaik. “Where Chan and Tantra Meet: Buddhist Syncretism in Dunhuang.” In The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith, 61–71. London: British Library Press, 2004.

Dalton, Jacob, and Sam van Schaik. “Lighting the Lamp: The Structure of the Bsam Gtan Mig Sgron.” Acta Orientalia 64 (2003): 153–75. Decleer, Hubert. “Atisha’s Journey to Tibet.” In Religions of Tibet in Practice, edited by Donald S. Lopez. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. Donati, Valeria. “The Lamp Is Burning Bright. Gnoseological Approaches and Soteriological Perspectives in Gnubs Chen Sangs Rgyas Ye Shes’ Masterpiece.” Università degli Studi di Napoli L’Orientale, 2006. Dudjom Rinpoche. History of the Nyingma School of Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1991. Eastman, Kenneth. “The Eighteen Tantras of the Tattvasaṃgraha/ Māyājāla.” Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan 26 (1981): 95–96.

Esler, Dylan. “Critical Edition: Introductory Remarks,” Forthcoming. ———. “On the Life of GNubs-Chen Sangs-Rgyas Ye-Shes.” Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines, no. 29 (April 2014): 5–27. ———. “The Exposition of Atiyoga in gNubs-chen Sangs-rgyas yeshes’ bSam-gtan mig-sgron.” Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines 24, no. Studies in the Sems sde tradition of rDzogs chen, Ed. Jean-Luc Achard (October 2012): 81–136. ———. “The Origins and History of RDzogs Chen.” The Tibet Journal 30, no. 3 (Autumn 2005): 33–62. Germano, David. “Architecture and Absence in the Secret Tantric History of rDzogs Chen.” The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 17, no. 2 (1994): 203–335. ———. A Treasury of Words and Meanings - The Seminal Heart-Essence Tradition of the Great Perfection: an annotated translation with introduction of this fourteenth century text by Klong chen rab 'byams pa that is the classical survey of the Seminal Heart (sNying thig) tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. Unpublished Manuscript, 2009. ———. “Canons at the Boundaries: The Rnying Ma Tantras and Shades of Gray between the Early and Late Translations.” In The Many Canons of Tibetan Buddhism: PIATS 2000: Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Ninth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, edited by David Germano and Helmut Eimer, 2002. ———. Mysticism and Rhetoric in the Great Perfection. Unpublished Manuscript, 2009. ———. Prophetic Histories of Buddhas, Dākinīs and Saints in Tibet. Unpublished Manuscript, 2009. ———. “The Funerary Transformation of the Great Perfection (Rdzogs Chen).” Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, no. 1 (2005): 1–54. ———. The Secret Tibetan History of Buddhist Tantra in the Great Perfection. Unpublished Manuscript, 2009. ———. “The Seven Descents and the Nature of sNga’ ’gyur: The ‘History’ of rNying ma Tantras.” In The Many Canons of Tibetan Buddhism: Piats 2000: Tibetan Studies : Proceedings of the Ninth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. Leiden: Brill, 2000. Gray, David. “On the Very Idea of a Tantric Canon: Myth, Politics, and the Formation of the Bka’ ’gyur.” Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, no. 5 (2009). http://www.thlib.org/?tid=T5690. Gregory, Peter N. Sudden and Gradual: Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1991. Higgins, David. The Philosophical Foundations of Classical RDzogs Chen in Tibet: Investigating the Distinction between Dualistic Mind (Sems) and Primordial Knowing (Ye Shes). Wien: Arbeitskreis für Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien, Universität Wien, 2013. Hirshberg, Daniel Alexander. Remembering the Lotus-Born: Padmasambhava in the History of Tibet’s Golden Age. Studies in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2016. Kapstein, Matthew. The Tibetan Assimilation of Buddhism. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Karmay, Samten Gyaltsen. “A Recently Discovered Rnam Thar of Lha Bla Ma Ye She’s ‘Od.” In Tibet after Empire: Culture, Society and Religion between 850–1000. Lumbini: LIRI, 2013.

———. The Arrow and the Spindle: Studies in History, Myths, Rituals and Beliefs in Tibet. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point, 1998. ———. The Great Perfection (rDzogs Chen: A Philosophical and Meditative Teaching of Tibetan Buddhism. Leiden: Brill, 2007. Kuijp, Leonard van der. “Dating the Two Lde’u Chronicles of Buddhism in India and Tibet.” Etudes Asiatiques: Revue de La Société Suisse - Asie 46 (1992). Kunsang, Erik Pema. The Lotus-Born: The Life Story of Padmasambhava. Third Edition edition. Hong Kong; Enfield: Rangjung Yeshe Publications, 2004. Liljenberg, Karen. “On the History and Identification of Two of the Thirteen Later Translations of the Dzogchen Mind Series.” Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines 17 (2009): 51–61. ———. “On the Thig Le Drug Pa and the SPyi Chings, Two of the Thirteen Later Translations of the RDzogs Chen Mind Series.” Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines 24, no. October 2012 (n.d.): 137–57. ———. “The Small Hidden Grain by Buddhagupta. Translated from the British Library Dunhuan Manuscript IOL Tib J 594.” Http://Www.Zangthal.Co.Uk/Files.Html, n.d. Lopez, Donald S. Religions of Tibet in Practice. Princeton Readings in Religions. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. Lopez, Manuel. “Bringing Light in to the Darkness: An Intellectual History of Tibet’s Dark Age (842-978 CE).” University of Virginia, 2014. McRae, John R. Seeing through Zen: Encounter, Transformation, and Genealogy in Chinese Chan Buddhism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. Meinert, Carmen. “Chinesische Chan- Und Tibetische RDzogs ChenLehre: Eine Komparatistische Untersuchung Im Lichte Des Philosophischen Heilskonzeptes ‘Nicht-Vorstellen’ Anhand Der Dunhuang-Dokumente Des Chinesischen Chan-Meister Wolun Und Des Werkes BSam Gtan Mig Sgron Des Tibetischen Gelehrten GNubs Chen Sangs Rgyas Ye Shes.” Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, 2004. Norbu, Namkhai. The Supreme Force. The Fundamental Tantra of Dzogchen Semde Nujed Gyalpo. Snow Lion Publications, 1999. Palmo, Ani Jinba. The Great Image: The Life Story of Vairochana the Translator. Boston: Shambhala, 2004. Reynolds, John Myrdhin (trans.) The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, the First Teacher of Dzogchen, Together with a Commentary By. 1st ed. Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications, 1996. Ruegg, David Seyfort. The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India. Vol. 7. 1. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1981. Schaeffer, Kurtis R. Culture of the Book in Tibet. Place of publication not identified: Columbia University Press, 2014. Schaik, Sam van. “The Early Days of the Great Perfection.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 27, no. 1 (2004): 165–206. Smith, E. Gene. Among Tibetan Texts: History and Literature of the Himalayan Plateau. Studies in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2001. Sur, Dominic. “A Study of Rong zom’s ‘Disclosing the Great Vehicle Approach’ in the History of Tibet’s Great Perfection Tradition.” University of Virginia, 2015. ———. Entering the Way of the Great Vehicle: Dzogchen as the Culmination of the Mahāyāna. Boulder: Snow Lion, 2017. Thakur, Laxman S. “A Tibetan Inscription by LHa Bla-Ma Ye-Shes’od from DKor (SPu) Rediscovered.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 4, no. 03 (November 1994): 369–75. Van Schaik, Sam. Approaching the Great Perfection: Simultaneous and Gradual Approaches to Dzogchen Practice in the Longchen Nyingtig. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2004. ———. “Dzogchen, Chan and the Question of Influence.” Revue d’Etudes Tibétaines 24 (October 2012): 5–20. Yamaguchi, Zuihō. “The Fiction of King Dar-Ma’s Persecution of Buddhism.” In Du Dunhuang Au Japon: Études Chinoises et Bouddhiques Offertes à Michel Soymié, 231–58. Geneva: Droz, 1996.