Tibetan Buddhism and the use of Entheogens
“And those who were seen dancing were thought to be insane by those who could not hear the music.” ― Friedrich Nietzsche
Shamanism, a practice based on the mediation between the immanent worlds, is one of the oldest religious tradition in the world. We find its traces among a multitude of religions still existing. The pre-Buddhist Bön religion is one example. There are several shamanic practices in this religious structure, including: spiritual transactions, trance, healing practices and alteration of consciousness. Moreover, according to the
Bönpo tradition, the first shaman who brought the knowledge of the immaterial worlds to humans was named Shenrab Miwoche and is considered to predate Siddharta Gautama. In addition, another trace of shamanism in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition is that of the oracle of Nechung, a powerful medium that interprets the intentions of multiple deities for the state of Tibet. The oracle thus attains a trance state, with the help of trumpets and drums, to invoke a deity so that it can transfer their consciousness/spirit/soul into the physical medium Kuten, the physical body of the oracle.
The important aspect of the shamanic tradition that matters to us in this work is the use of entheogenic substances in the tantric traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. Primarily, an entheogen is considered a psychoactive substance that induces an altered state of consciousness, often used for spiritual and shamanic purposes. These substances were used, with the help of rituals, to reach altered states of consciousness. The use of entheogens has been documented many times in the Vajrayana tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. Indeed, several tantras, more specifically: Anuttarayoga-tantra, Cakrasaṃvara-tantra and Vajramahabhairava-Tantra mention the use of Datura and cannabis for spiritual purposes.
Three texts has been chosen to demonstrate and document the use of entheogens, specifically Datura, cannabis and Amanita Muscaria in Tibetan Tantric Buddhism. The first is Psychoactive Plants in Tantric Buddhism: Cannabis and Datura Use in IndoTibetan Esoteric Buddhism by R. C. Parker and Lux. This text was presented in the journal Erowid Extracts. R.C. Parker, a researcher at Cardiff University and Associate Professor of Religious Studies, Geoffrey Samuel, a contributing editor of the journal, in collaboration with Lux, present the ritualized and spiritual use of Datura and cannabis in
Indo-Tibetan Tantrism. They present their thesis based on Tibetan tantric writings of Buddhist masters.
The second text, written by Bulcsu Siklos, entitled Datura Rituals in the Vajramahabhairava-Tantra, appeared in the journal Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. The author is a doctor who wrote his thesis on Vajrabhairava Tantras. In this text, Bulcsu Siklos presents a deep analysis on the use of Datura in Vajrabhairava Tantric texts. In addition, he presents the etymological origin of the word Datura.
In the third and final text, Soma siddhas and alchemical enlightenment: psychedelic mushrooms in Buddhist tradition, presented in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Scott Hajicek-Dobberstein presents his thesis of the ritual drink of soma and its worship surviving among several teachings of Tibetan siddhas and as a result, several writings of these masters.
Psychoactive Plants in Tantric Buddhism
To begin with, the authors contextualize the emergence of the psychedelic culture of the 1960s. During this electrifying era, many parallel connections between psychedelic spiritual experiences and spiritual practices of Asia were illustrated. As a result, the counterculture associated these two experiences as intrinsically connected. Several books were written illustrating this connection. One example is The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead, written in collaboration with Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert. This book portrays the psychedelic experience as an imminent death experience identical to the Bardos' journey in the Tibetan Book of the Dead. At the time, these books and connections were not based directly on concrete evidence, but the emergence of new translations of tantric texts specifically demonstrates this connection that was difficult to prove prior.
Buddhist Tantric traditions are familiar with altered states of consciousness. Indeed, these esoteric practices, though for the most part difficult to execute, are centered on the worlds and states outside the physical plane from the outset, as demonstrated by RC Parker and Lux
"Tantric meditation and ritual often involve complex visualizations of these deities--so much so that the Tibetan polymath Tsong Khapa (1357-
1419) proposed "deity yoga" as the defining characteristic of tantra.7 Many tantric yogas are intended to elicit extraordinary states of consciousness, including sexual yoga with real or visualized partners and energy yogas that manipulate body heat, respiration, or dreaming. "1 The reason why we delve into tantric traditions to deepen our understanding is important, as these traditions are tolerant of the use of substances and practices of unorthodox nature for purposes of transcendence and spiritual elevation. In addition, some tantras contain detailed information on the use of intoxicants, including Datura and cannabis.
Indeed, literature documenting Datura use is abundant in India and Tibet. Especially in Tibet, this plant is known as thang phrom. In India, the use of this substance has been listed in several Ayurvedic materia medica, as well as in the famous text Kāmasūtra:
"If food be mixed with the fruit of the thorn apple (dathura) it causes intoxication". It also advises a man to anoint his penis with honey infused with datura and long peppers (pippali = Piper lungum) before sexual intercourse to make his partner "subject to his will."2
It is important to note the use of the word “will” in this quote. Adiitionally, many Buddhist deities are associated with this plant, and the flower is used for offering purposes. In the Vajramahabhairava Tantra the use of Datura for spiritual purposes is explicitly discussed, and we will see this tantra in more detail with the account of the
1 Parker RC, Lux. "Psychoactive Plants in Tantric Buddhism; Cannabis and Datura Use in Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism". Erowid Extracts, no. 14 June 2008, p. 6
2 Vātsyāyana. The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana. trans. Richard Burton. Modern Library. 2002. p 188,181 second text. Sachen Kunga Nyingpo, a great Tibetan master, established the Sakya lineage and wrote about the effect of Datura "When datura [...] is eaten, appearances manifest as yellow."3 In addition, the third Dodrupchen Rinpoche compared the effect of a liberating nectar with that of the Datura
"[I]f one takes the nectar by itself the [[[subtle body]]] will receive blessings spontaneously and excellent accomplishments will be achieved, like being intoxicated by alcohol [...] and being deluded with visions by Datura or thorn apple[...]"4
Furthermore, in several tantras, the use of Datura is also associated with magicoreligious attacks. This is the case of Guhyasamāja Tantra and Cakrasamvara Tantra. In the latter, it is written that one can render someone completely insane by using five intoxicants. These intoxicants are identified as the roots, stems, leaves, flowers and fruits of the Datura. Datura was even used in a fire offering ritual of Kālachakra Tantra. This offering may have created a psychoactive smoke.
When the oblation is offered in the octagonal pot, on a fire made with arka faggots, with thorn-apples [[[datura]]] and kusumadyas offered into the fire, it accomplishes stupefactions [of the enemy] [...]"5
These multiple examples clearly show us that Datura was not only known by Tibetan tantric traditions, but also used with great respect to its abilities. Another substance listed among the Buddhist traditions of Tibet is cannabis. Originally much more present in the Hindu traditions as a medicinal plant helping multiple physical or spiritual problems, its use is still present in Tibet. Indeed, in the Cakrasamvara Tantra, it is said that cannabis can help a person to become a master who acts as he wants and stays where he wants.
3 Stearns C. Taking the Result as the Path: Core Teachings of the Sakya Lamdré Tradition. Wisdom Publications. 2006. p 432.
4 Thondup Rinpoche T. Hidden Teachings of Tibet. Wisdom Publications. 1997. p 152-153.
5 Hartzell, JF. Tantric Yoga: A Study of the Vedic Precursors, Historical Evolution, Literatures, Cultures, Doctrines, and Practices of the 11th Century Kaśmīri Śaivite and Buddhist Unexcelled Tantric Yogas. Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University. 1997. p 1270,363
Furthermore, the translator of the Cakrasamvara Tantra mentions that each plant mentioned in this tantra is edible, which probably infers production techniques used to facilitate oral ingestion.
It is clear from the tantric writings presented by the authors and the other sources that some Tibetan Tantric traditions, as well as Vedic Tantric traditions, mention the use of these entheogens as directly related to altered states of consciousness and some spiritual awakening. R.C. Parker and Lux say that these teachings reveal only a tiny part of Buddhist spirituality and that these practices doesn’t represent the entirety of Tibetan Buddhist spirituality. Moreover, they seem to distinguish the use of entheogens in these traditions compared to other traditions centered on the use of such substances. While psychoactive plants appear in Tibetan recipes for alchemical elixirs and sacred medicines, Samuel proposes that such use was "not aiming at the more dramatic transformations of consciousness with which we are familiar when looking at the use of entheogens in other cultures.”6
Datura Rituals in the Vajramahabhairava-Tantra
Bulcsu Siklos discusses the Sanskrit linguistic evidence of the use of the word Datura, da dhu ra. He argues that the writings of the Vajramahabhairava-Tantra have specific rituals on the use of Datura and this is what he demonstrates in this text. He argues that this tantra is vital because it destroys all the presuppositions of some botanical researchers claiming that Datura is just an export of other modern societies. The author takes for example Symon:
6 Parker RC, Lux. "Psychoactive Plants in Tantric Buddhism; Cannabis and Datura Use in Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism". Erowid Extracts. Jun 2008;14 P. 10-11
"In Asia, as in Europe, the total absence of Datura among the numerous recognizable deismus, Ethnobotanik Ethnobotany scriptions and illustrations of a wide range of plants in many and varied works argues strongly against its origin in the Old World » (1991 P.202)." The author clearly defines a difference between two Datura species and argues that D. metel is the species mentioned in the Vajramahabhairava-Tantra. The text mentioned is a Tibetan translation before the 13th century. This tantra focuses mainly on rituals associated with the deity Vajrabhairava and refers to a plant named da dhu ra. In the fourth chapter of the tantra (vbt), it is stated, "Then if, wanting to turn wealth into poverty, he performs a hundred and eight burnt offerings at night in a fire of cotton using Datura fruit, (that wealth) will indeed become trifling."7
The Vajramahabhairava-Tantra contains five passages about rituals associated with Datura. The third ritual is mainly about the effects of Datura after ingestion. In addition, Bulcsu Siklos supports his thesis that Datura metel has definite pre-Columbian roots in Vedic and Tibetan Buddhist traditions:
"Nonetheless the Vbt. occurrences at least provide a roughly datable (and definitely preColumbian) record of the word da dhu ra on the basis of which the linguistic evidence can be investigated. This evidence leads inescapably to the conclusion that it is indeed Datura metel which is referred to in Vbt."8
As a result, the author demonstrates that the use of Datura, especially Datura metel, appears in ritualized Buddhist and Vedic Tantric writings, in addition to being present before European influence on the territory.
7 Siklós, Bulcsu. "Datura Rituals in the Vajramahabhairava-Tantra" Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, vol. 47, no. 3, 1994, pp. 413
8 Ibid p. 415
Psychedelic Mushrooms in Buddhist Tradition
The use of the psychoactive fly agaric fungus has been listed in several religious traditions of the world. Notably among the Nordic pagans and the Vedic cult of soma and the Rigveda corpus. In this text, Scott Hajicek-Dobberstein presents his thesis, based on symbols and writings, in which this psychoactive mushroom was used by Buddhist siddhas. The author presents his findings by analyzing specific passages in the book The Stories of the Eighty-Four Siddhas, which was translated into Tibetan in the early 12th century by the monk Smon-grub-shes-rab. In this book, several levels of knowledge are inscribed. The first level is the historical and descriptive information of the siddhas, the second is the didactic interpretation of this text, and the last level contains a deeper esoteric meaning inserted in some parts of the text. The author refers to Karnanipa (Aryadeva), disciple of Nagarjuna, and founder of Madhyamika School:
"After receiving Nagarjuna's dietary advice, Karnaripa (Aryadeva) returns from begging with a pancake piled with sweets on the tip of his needle. This seems to be an ironic joke played on his guru by his benefactors. However, at a deeper level which I will attempt to interpret below, the pancake on a needle is a symbol representing the fly agaric mushroom."9
In the text of the siddhas it is told that Aryadeva spread an elixir, given by Nagarjuna, onto a dead tree, which resulted in its resurrection by growing leaves. The master then asked Aryadeva to give him back the elixir. Aryadeva urinates in a pot and gave this container to his master, who then spread it on a dead tree and found that the healing power of the urine was the same as the elixir. This passage is extremely important to identify the elixir because fly agaric and psychoactive mushrooms are the only entheogenic substances able to keep their psychoactive characteristics in the urine. Moreover, this practice of drinking active urine has been widely recorded in Siberian shamanic traditions. This bridge between the elixir and the urine is therefore a firm point for the identification of the use of amanita muscaria by Tibetan masters. It is also important to note that Aryadeva laughed euphorically after the ingestion of the elixir, this
9 Hajicek-Dobberstein, Scott. "Soma siddhas and alchemical enlightenment: psychedelic mushrooms in Buddhist tradition." Journal of Ethnopharmacology Volume 48, Issue 2, October 1995, P. 101
laugh is one of four appearances in the eighty-four biographies of the text and the only one that suggests that the elixir has exhilarating effects in addition to healing and enlightening properties. Furthermore, there is an interesting link between the nature of Aryadeva's unique eye and the unique eye symbol used to describe fly agaric in soma cult. According to Scott Hajicek-Dobberstein:
The Single Eye' is both an epithet of Soma and of Karnaripa(Aryadeva), who is not merely connected with the mushroom; he shares the name of the mushroom, he is equated with the mushroom. The deeper meaning of his having the mushroom's name and the gift of his eye is, as yet, unknown to me "10
Another siddha in the text of the eighty-four siddhas, is Nagabodhi. In the story, it is mentioned that Nagarjuna taught him to create red horns on his head while meditating to achieve enlightenment. As a result, the author makes a link between the symbol of amanita muscaria, in the soma cult, as the sharp-horned bull, given by the indologist Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty. Additionally, there is an indisputable link between the highly symbolic color of the mushroom and the horns mentioned. It must be remembered, though, that besides being the founders of the Madhyamika tradition, both Nagarjuna I and Aryadeva I were credited with being masters of all branches of science and all forms of orthodox and heterodox philosophical systems which should have included alchemy.11 This quote is highly symbolic in its conclusions, as the author demonstrates an understanding that his thesis may elicit controversy among some traditional Buddhists. However, he wishes to point out that these beings were recognized as masters of all branches of science. As a result, their use of the elixir based on Amanita muscaria seems quite in agreement with their method of thinking. Based on his analysis, notably on the effect of the elixir through the urine, the presence of symbols directly related to fly agaric
10 Ibid P. 107-108
11 Ibid P. 111 and the writings mentioning them, Scott Hajicek-Dobberstein proposes a thesis very well supported and electrifying.
As a final analysis, the texts were presented in a certain order to illustrate different scientific and academic aspects of the search for use of entheogens in Tibetan Buddhist traditions. On the one hand, a thorough research of tantras analyzing the well-established use of ritualized Datura as a mean of awakening by altering consciousness with the text of R. C. Parler and Lux. Then, a precise analysis on the Vajramahabhairava-Tantra, still in the optics of the use of Datura. More precisely, this text was chosen to demonstrate the use of D. metel well before the European arrival in the Indian and Tibetan environment, which Bulcsu Siklos does brilliantly. Finally, the third text, on a symbolic deconstruction of a text on the eighty-four siddhas which presents a fundamentally interesting thesis on the use of the psychoactive mushroom amanita muscaria by Nagarjuna I and Aryadeva I. Considering the time and space for the realization of this text it seems obvious to me that we have not analyzed the subject as a whole. It would have been equally relevant to question the psychological, neuronal and psychological effects that certain psychoactive substances have on the human psyche. For example, a major study by Dr. E Mohandas published in the Mens Sana Monographs research foundation, demonstrates different brain and neural activity among meditation practitioners. Mohandas concluded
"Spiritual practices [[[meditation]]] have shown definite neuroanatomical and neurochemical changes in the few studies that have been conducted so far to explore the neurobiology of such phenomenon. The evidence has been drawn mainly from studies that have examined meditation. However, they are replete with investigational constraints, methodological errors, small sample size and the results of many of the studies have not been replicated. There is need for further exploration of many of the prevalent spiritual/religious practices to clearly elucidate the neural correlates of the positive and negative effects they produce on physical and mental health"12
12 Mohandas E. "Neurobiology of Spirituality." Mens Sana Monographs. 2008;6(1) pp. 63-80 References
Parker RC, Lux. "Psychoactive Plants in Tantric Buddhism; Cannabis and Datura Use in Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism." Erowid Extracts, no. 14 June 2008, pp. 6-11
Siklós, Bulcsu. "Datura Rituals in the Vajramahabhairava-Tantra" Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, vol. 47, no. 3, 1994, pp. 409–416
Hajicek-Dobberstein, Scott. "Soma siddhas and alchemical enlightenment: psychedelic mushrooms in Buddhist tradition." Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 48, Issue 2, October 1995, pp. 99-118
"Vātsyāyana. The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana." trans. Richard Burton. Modern Library. 2002
Stearns C. "Taking the Result as the Path: Core Teachings of the Sakya Lamdré Tradition." Wisdom Publications. 2006.
Thondup Rinpoche T. "Hidden Teachings of Tibet". Wisdom Publications. 1997.
Hartzell, JF. "Tantric Yoga: A Study of the Vedic Precursors, Historical Evolution, Literatures, Cultures, Doctrines, and Practices of the 11th Century Kaśmīri Śaivite and Buddhist Unexcelled Tantric Yogas. " Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University. 1997.
Mohandas E. "Neurobiology of Spirituality." Mens Sana Monographs. 2008;6(1) pp. 6380
